TABLE OF CONTENT

• Introduction
• 1 Botanical garden of University of Maribor Pivola
• 2 What is a botanical garden and how does it work?
• 3 Let’s have a look at the plants and what is typical for them
  • 3.1 Roots and root systems of plants
  • 3.2 Plant stem
  • 3.3 Plant leaf
  • 3.4 Plant flower
  • 3.5 Fruit of plants
• 4 Systematic Field
  • 4.1 The most important levels in the taxonomic plant hierarchy
  • 4.2 Taxonomic overview of the plants that grow in the systematical field of Botanical Garden UM
• 5 My notes on herb garden
  • 5.1 Herbs / medical plants presentation of the collection from Botanic garden UM
  • 5.2 Definitions of herbs/medicinal plants
  • 5.3 What are herbs used for?
  • 5.4 What part of the herb to harvest and where to harvest them?
  • 5.5 How to dry and store the herbs?
  • 5.6 How do we use the herbs and its drugs?
  • 5.7 Description of certain herbs
  • 5.8 History of herbalism
  • 5.9 Glossary
• 6 Fruit and vegetable garden
  • 6.1 Fruit and vegetable garden in Botanical garden of the University of Maribor Pivola
  • 6.2 Agriculture and the fact that Slovenia is not an agricultural superpower
  • 6.3 How do we produce food and what is the impact of agriculture on the environment and health?
    • 6.3.1 Conventional farming
    • 6.3.2 Integrated farming
    • 6.3.3 Organic farming
  • 6.4 Vegetable garden
    • 6.4.1 Crop rotation system
    • 6.4.2 List of plants that can or cannot grow together
    • 6.4.3 A bug or insect hotel
    • 6.4.4 Compost
    • 6.4.5 Raised garden bed
  • 6.5 Fruit garden
    • 6.5.1 Fruit production in Slovenia
    • 6.5.2 Pomological classification of fruit species
    • 6.5.3 Reproduction of fruit plants
    • 6.5.4 Forms of growth (habitus) of fruit species
    • 6.5.5 Methods of cultivation
    • 6.5.6 A list of fruits that are common in Slovene gardens
• 7 Rock Garden
• 8 Pinetum

Introduction

Dear friends,

my name is Gary Green, but everyone calls me Mr. Green. I am an enthusiastic gardener. My greatest hobby is to dig in the soil for days and plant various plants to take care of them. I have a big garden right next to my house and it appears as an idyllic landscape; however, vegetables, fruits and herbs are not the main part of it. Like most of the English gardens, I focused on a beautiful green lawn and planted these majestic trees that give a nice shade, where I can drink a cup of delicious green tea with my friends. I like challenges; therefore, I grow many foreign plants, some of which were sent to me by my penfriend Zdravka from Slovenia. She is as enthusiastic about plants as I am. She has a lot of knowledge about herbs and is crazy about them. Zdravka gained the knowledge about the plants as she has been collecting them since her childhood. Her grandmother has always helped her in recognizing the plants. They have been picking the herbs in various places: on meadows, fields, forests and creeks. Right next to her house she has a garden, there is a special corner only for the most beautiful, blossoming and aromatic herbs.

I met Zdravka in a beautiful botanical garden in the UK. I go there every week and try to find some good ideas for my own garden. When Zdravka came to see the garden, I recognized her passion for herbs. I asked her a few questions about the chamomile because I wasn’t sure if the one in my garden has the right conditions for growing. She explained to me what the chamomile needs to grow well. Afterwards, I told her some interesting facts about the botanical garden. We bonded over the mutual passion for botany and exchanged addresses. We have been writing letters since. Experiences and tips have been shared to help each other in growing beautiful plants. Recently, Zdravka informed me about a botanical garden in Maribor, Slovenia, which she has a passion for. Over the years, its collection of plants has grown significantly so she decided to invite me.

At the Botanical garden of the University of Maribor, I met some of Zdravka’s friends. We got along because of shared interest in botany. One of Zdravka’s friends toured us around the garden and showed us the local vegetation and some untypical plants that grow well in this region. I wrote down all the interesting things I saw as well as my impressions of the garden and its plants. Did this peak your curiosity? You will get an insight into my notes in the following pages.

1 Botanical garden of University of Maribor Pivola

The Botanical garden covers an area of about 15 hectares and is the biggest University botanical garden in Slovenia. The garden is separated into 14 units which can be seen in the picture below.

It was established on 24 May by the then dean of Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, prof. dr. Božidar Krajnčič. The garden is involved in the Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI). First work was done in 1996, right after the Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences got the Pohorski dvor estate, where there is also one of the oldest castles in Slovenia called Hompoš. This castle has been the registered office of the Faculty since 2008.

2 What is a botanical garden and how does it work?

A botanical garden is an institution where plants are grown for study and scientific purposes. The botanical garden is not private. In contrast, everyone who is interested in plants or wants just a walk in the nature is welcome here.

The aim of the botanical garden and its leading purpose is the conservation and protection of self-sown, decorative and useful plant species. In addition, many scientific plant researches in the field of genetics, selective breeding, physiology and botanical are done. The Botanical Garden of University of Maribor offers a study environment for students from the University of Maribor and other foreign students; thus they are organizing guided tours through the Garden and holding botanical workshops for elementary and high school students.

The Botanical Garden of the University of Maribor represents the Slovenian plant diversity, especially the typical species and peculiarities of the Pohorje hill and Northeast Slovenia. Here you can find endangered, rare or almost extinct plant species (on the Slovene website there is a list of endangered plants and with a click on the scientific name of a plant you get an translation of its name into English). Among all these local plants you can also find some examples from other continents (Asia, Africa, America, Australia and New Zealand).

3 Let’s have a look at the plants and what is typical for them

Plants are living organisms that belong to one so-called kingdom (Kingdom Plantae). It is estimated that the total number of the known plants is of the order of 400,000 species. Plants include familiar organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology. The plant life occurring in a particular region or time is called flora.

Although very different, all plants have the ability to use the energy from the sun to create energy in the form of sugars. The described process, called photosynthesis, takes place in the chloroplasts. The cell walls of plants are built up of cellulose. Plants are therefore the basis of all life on earth producing all of the food that animals and people eat.

According to cell type, plants are classified as eukaryotes (they carry a nucleus), while according to feeding type, we also call them autotrophs (they synthesize their own food with the help of solar energy; exceptions are some members that have lost its chlorophyll and become parasitic plants).

According to the plant’s life cycle (one seed-to-seed life cycle), plants are divided into the following categories:

• Annual plants are plants that complete its life cycle, from germination to the production of seed, within one year and then die. Find out more about annual plants here.
• Biennial plants are flowering plants that take two years to complete its biological lifecycle. In the first year, the plant grows leaves, stems, and roots (vegetative structures), then it enters a period of dormancy over the colder months. Find out more about biennial plants here.
• Perennial plants or simply perennials are plants that live for more than two years. They take several years to grow their vegetative structures, in the second period they grow and bloom. Find out more about perennial plants here.
• Woody plants are plants that produce wood as its structural tissue. Woody plants are usually either trees (one trunk) or shrubs (multiple woody stems). Most of the woody plants shed their leaves at the end of a vegetative period. Many woody plants pass through a period of growth before they begin to bloom. Find out more about trees and shrubs.

According to the physical form and external structure, plants are divided into the following categories:

• thylloid plants (the simplest types of plants) are plants that lack true stems, leaves or roots; the plant’s body is composed of a thallus;
• non-vascular plants (mosses) are plants that have a stem-like and leaf-like structure, but they lack true roots, stems or leaves; instead of roots, they have rhizoids;
• vascular plants or higher plants (ferns and seed plants) are plants that all have similar parts, such as stems, leaves and roots
  • flowering plants or seed-producing plants
  • gymnosperms.

3.1 Roots and root systems of plants

In its simplest form, the term root architecture refers to the spatial configuration of a plant’s root system. This system can be extremely complex and is dependent on multiple factors such as the species of the plant itself, the composition of the soil and the availability of nutrients.

The configuration of the root systems serves to structurally support the plant, compete with other plants and for the uptake of nutrients from the soil. Roots grow to specific conditions, which, if changed, can impede a plant's growth. For example, a root system that has developed in dry soil may not be as efficient in flooded soil, yet plants are able to adapt to other changes in the environment, such as seasonal changes.

The root architecture plays the key role in providing a secure supply of nutrients and water as well as anchorage and support.

• Adventitious roots arise out-of-sequence from the more usual root formation of branches of a primary root, and instead originate from the stem, branches, leaves, or old woody roots. They commonly occur in monocots and pteridophytes, but also in many dicots, such as clover (Trifolium), ivy (Hedera), strawberry (Fragaria) and willow (Salix). Most aerial roots and stilt roots are adventitious. In some conifers adventitious roots can form the largest part of the root system.
• Aerating roots (or knee root or knee or pneumatophores or Cypress knee):  roots rising above the ground, especially above water such as in some mangrove genera (Avicennia, Sonneratia). In some plants like Avicennia the erect roots have a large number of breathing pores for the exchange of gases.
• Aerial roots: roots entirely above the ground, such as in ivy (Hedera) or in epiphytic orchids. Many aerial roots are used to receive water and nutrient intake directly from the air - from fog, dew or humidity in the air. Some rely on leaf systems to gather rain or humidity and even store it in scales or pockets. Other aerial roots, such as mangrove aerial roots, are used for aeration and not for water absorption. Other aerial roots are used mainly for structure, functioning as prop roots, as in maize or anchor roots or as the trunk in strangler fig. In some Epiphytes - plants living above the surface on other plants, aerial roots serve for reaching water sources or reaching the surface, and then functioning as regular surface roots.
• Contractile roots: they pull bulbs or corms of monocots, such as hyacinth and lily, and some taproots, such as dandelion, deeper in the soil through expanding radially and contracting longitudinally. They have a wrinkled surface.
• Coarse roots: roots that have undergone secondary thickening and have a woody structure. These roots have some ability to absorb water and nutrients, but their main function is transport and to provide a structure to connect the smaller diameter, fine roots to the rest of the plant.
• Fine roots: primary roots usually <2 mm diameter that have the function of water and nutrient uptake. They are often heavily branched and support mycorrhizas. These roots may be short lived, but are replaced by the plant in an ongoing process of root 'turnover'.
• Haustorial roots: roots of parasitic plants that can absorb water and nutrients from another plant, such as in mistletoe (Viscum album) and dodder.
• Propagative roots: roots that form adventitious buds that develop into aboveground shoots, termed suckers, which form new plants, as in Canada thistle, cherry and many others.
• Proteoid roots or cluster roots: dense clusters of rootlets of limited growth that develop under low phosphate or low iron conditions in Proteaceae and some plants from the following families Betulaceae, Casuarinaceae, Elaeagnaceae, Moraceae, Fabaceae and Myricaceae.
• Stilt roots: these are adventitious support roots, common among mangroves. They grow down from lateral branches, branching in the soil.
• Storage roots: these roots are modified for storage of food or water, such as carrots and beets. They include some taproots and tuberous roots.
• Structural roots: large roots that have undergone considerable secondary thickening and provide mechanical support to woody plants and trees.
• Surface roots: These proliferate close below the soil surface, exploiting water and easily available nutrients. Where the conditions are close to the optimum in the surface layers of soil, the growth of the surface roots is encouraged and they commonly become the dominant roots.
• Tuberous roots: a portion of a root swells for food or water storage, e.g. sweet potato. A type of storage root distinct from taproot.

3.2 Plant stem

A stem is one of the two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root. The stem is normally divided into nodes and internodes:

• The nodes hold one or more leaves, as well as buds which can grow into branches (with leaves, conifer cones, or inflorescences (flowers)). Adventitious roots may also be produced from the nodes.
• The internodes distance one node from another.

The term "shoots" is often confused with "stems"; "shoots" generally refers to new fresh plant growth including both stems and other structures like leaves or flowers. In most plants the stems are located above the soil surface but some plants have underground stems.

Stems have four main functions:

• Support for and the elevation of leaves, flowers and fruits. The stems keep the leaves in the light and provide a place for the plant to keep its flowers and fruits.
• Transport of fluids between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem.
• Storage of nutrients.
• Production of new living tissue. The normal lifespan of plant cells is one to three years. Stems have cells called meristems that annually generate new living tissue.

Types of stems:

Underground stems

• Rhizome: It is a thickened, prostrate, underground stem having distinct nodes and internodes, scaly leaves at the nodes, axillary and terminal buds are present; may be branched or un-branched; sometimes adventitious roots also arise, e.g. Ginger.
• Tuber: The underground stem becomes enlarged at the growing tips by the accumulation of stored food, commonly starch, tubers are produced, e.g. Potato. The eyes of a potato are nodes at each of them 1-3 buds are produced in the axils of small scaly like leaves.
• Bulb: is a short underground stem with fleshy leaf base called scales. The stem is very much reduced and becomes disc like. The discoid stem is convex or conical in shape and bears highly compressed internodes. These nodes bear fleshy scales. On the upper side, the disc bears a terminal bud surrounded by a number of leaves. The axillary buds are located between the axis of leaves. The adventitious roots are borne on the lower side of the disc. An example of this is onion.
• Corm: is a short, thick and un-branched underground stem with stored food material. It grows vertically and is covered by thin sheathing leaf bases of dead leaves called scales. The corm bears buds at their nodes. These buds are responsible for giving off adventitious roots. The corm serves the functions of food storage, vegetative propagation and perennation. The corm is more or less rounded in shape or often somewhat flattened from top to bottom, e.g. Colocasia.

Sub-aerial stems

• Runner: It grows prostrate in all directions above the soil level. Nodes bear scale leaves. It has a creeping stem with long internodes. On the lower sides, nodes bear adventitious roots. A runner develops from the axils of lower leaves of aerial stem which sends slender horizontal branches in the form of runners. When older parts of plant die, the branches separate from the parent plant and form independent plants e.g. Doob grass.
• Stolon: It is a slender lateral branch which appears from the lower part of the main axis. This lateral branch grows aerially for some distance and becomes arched and finally touches the ground to give rise to a new shoot with the help of its terminal bud. It also bears roots to get fixed with the soil e.g. Jasmine.
• Offset is shorter and thicker. It is usually found in aquatic plants like water hyacinth and Pistia. It bears a cluster of leaves near the water or ground level and gives adventitious roots inside the water or ground from all nodes, e.g. Pistia.
• Sucker: Like the stolon the sucker is also a lateral branch, but it grows obliquely upwards and gives rise to new plants. An example of this is mentha.

Aerial stems

• Stem tendril: It is a leafless, spirally coiled branch formed in some climbers and helps them in climbing neighbouring objects; they may be modification of axillary bud, e.g. Passiflora.
• Stem thorn is a hard, straight and pointed structure; it is a defensive organ; it also helps in climbing; it originates from the axillary or terminal bud, e.g. Duranta.
• Pylloclade: It is a green, flattened or cylindrical stem which takes the form and function of a leaf. It contains chlorophyll and is responsible for carrying on photosynthesis. It bears succession of nodes and intemodes at long or short intervals. Phylloclades are found in xerophytic plants, where the leaves either grow feebly or fall off early or modify into spines. An example of this is opuntia.
• Cladode: a phylloclade with one or two internodes is called a cladode e.g. Asparagus. In Asparagus cladodes are needle-like, slightly flattened green structures which appear in cluster in the axil of a scaly leaf. The main stem bears leaf spines at its nodes. A scale leaf is found just above the spine. Every branch on the main stem bears only scale leaves. In the axil of scale leaves a cluster of cladodes appear.
• Bulbil is the modification of a vegetative or floral bud. It is swollen due to the storage of food. It can function as an organ of vegetative propagation e.g. Dioscorea.

3.3 Plant leaf

A leaf is an organ of a vascular plant and is the principal lateral appendage of the stem. The leaves and the stem together form the shoot. Although leaves can be seen in many different shapes, sizes and textures, a typical leaf is a thin, dorsiventrally flattened organ, borne above ground and specialized for photosynthesis. In most leaves the primary photosynthetic tissue, the palisade mesophyll, is located on the upper side of the blade or lamina of the leaf.

Basic leaf types:

• Leaves of the White Spruce (Picea glauca) are needle-shaped and their arrangement is spiral.
• Ferns have fronds.
• Conifer leaves are typically needle- or awl-shaped or scale-like.
• Angiosperm (flowering plant) leaves: the standard form includes stipules, a petiole, and a lamina.
• Sheath leaves (type found in most grasses and many other monocots).

Stem leaf

Arrangement on the stem (Phyllotaxis):

Alternate: one leaf, branch, or flower part attached at each point or node on the stem, and leaves alternate direction to a greater or lesser degree along the stem.

Basal: Arising from the base of the stem.

Cauline: Arising from the aerial stem.

Opposite: Two leaves, branches, or flower parts attached at each point or node on the stem. Leaf attachments are paired at each node and decussate if, as typical, each successive pair is rotated 90° progressing along the stem.

Whorled, or verticillate: Three or more leaves, branches, or flower parts attached at each point or node on the stem. As with opposite leaves, successive whorls may or may not be decussate, rotated by half the angle between the leaves in the whorl (i.e., successive whorls of three rotated 60°, whorls of four rotated 45°, etc.). Opposite leaves may appear whorled near the tip of the stem. Pseudoverticillate describes an arrangement only appearing whorled, but not actually so.

Rosulate: Leaves form a rosette.

Rows: The term, distichous, literally means two rows. Leaves in this arrangement may be alternate or opposite in their attachment. The term, 2-ranked, is equivalent. The terms, tristichous and tetrastichous, are sometimes encountered. For example, the "leaves" (actually microphylls) of most species of Selaginella are tetrastichous, but not decussate.

3.4 Plant flower

A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in plants that are floral (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also called angiosperms). The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs. Flowers may facilitate outcrossing (fusion of sperm and eggs from different individuals in a population) or allow selfing (fusion of sperm and egg from the same flower). Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals, so as to cause them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen. After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds.

Perianth

Collectively the calyx and corolla form the perianth.

• Calyx: the outermost whorl consisting of units called sepals; these are typically green and enclose the rest of the flower in the bud stage, however, they can be absent or prominent and petal-like in some species.
• Corolla: the next whorl toward the apex, composed of units called petals, which are typically thin, soft and coloured to attract animals that help the process of pollination.

3.5 Fruit of plants

Fruit = usually pericarp (tissue that develops after fertilization from outer layer of the flower(s)) + matured seed(s)

The seed develops in the fruit. The seeds are made up of seedling coat (testa) and embryo (young plant developed from zygote after fertilisation). As a young plant, the embryo is initially a heterotrophic organism (does not carry photosynthesis), so it needs nutrients for growth. These nutrients are, in some plants, located in a special nutritional tissue (endosperm, perisperm) and in others in the embryo itself.

4 Systematic Field

As it is common in botanical gardens, the Garden of UM also has a systematic field with plants ranked from the simplest to the very complex ones. The field is separated into beds and every single bed belongs to one family in the kingdom of plants. Naturally, the Garden does not have every single family of the plant kingdom as there is not enough space for all the species, but they picked the most relevant and distinctive species.

Believe it or not, but in this botanical garden they have 51 of these beds. They are arranged in a phylogenetic order and lead the visitor from the simplest plants (Ranunculaceae or buttercup family) to the most complex (Poaceae or Gramineae – grasses, Monocotyledon or monocots).

The systematic field is designed for learning about the systematics of plants. The classification of plants or plant taxonomy is the science that identifies, describes, classifies, and names plants. The plant's classification is based on scientific specimens such as anatomy, physiology and genetics. Mostly the plants are put in the same family, if the flowers look alike, but this is not the only factor for classification.

For botanists the flower is an important part of the plant; therefore, botanists developed a means to represent the structure of a flower using numbers, letters and various symbols, presenting substantial information about the flower in a compact form to distinguish the structure of a bloom. It is called floral formula. This is just the tip of the iceberg, because botanists also like to draw. They decided to draw some floral diagrams and with these it is easier to visualize the form of the flower. The blossoms are drawn in a cross-cut, so that it is easier to tell apart the position of every single  piece of the flower.

Every plant has its own name and surname just like people do, the only difference is that the name of a flower tells us what kind of flower it is. The first word or the name shows us which genus the plant belongs to and the second word is the so called scientific epithet and it describes the plant inside the genus group. For example, album – white, rubrum – red, minor – small, vulgaris – common etc. For more information about the purpose of the Latin or botanical name follow the link on the most common epithets and their meaning.

The word that is sometimes hard to pronounce is the scientific name of the botanical family. The agreement between botanists is that scientific family names have the ending -eceae.

In biology, a species (abbreviated sp., with the plural form species abbreviated spp.) is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction.

All species are given a two-part name, a "binomial". The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs. The second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet (in botanical nomenclature, also sometimes in zoological nomenclature). For example, Solanum tuberosum – potato, Viola odorata – wood violet, Primula veris – cowslip, Malva silvestris – common mallow.

The guy who's at fault for formalising the modern system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature is Carl Linnaeus (1707−1778). In his time, he already used a classification of class, species, genus, type, and version. You can read more about his life and work, if you follow the link above.

In the botanical nomenclature (naming) it is furtherly agreed that the scientific names of the species and names of all taxa are written differently other than the rest of the text. The scientific names in the manuscript are underlined, otherwise we write them in italics. In the case of taxa lower than the species (subspecies - ssp., variant - var. and form - f.) we give these levels in upright and scientific names in italics. 

In addition to the scientific name of the taxon (written in italics), we also write the name of the author of the naming (upright).

The scientific denominations of living beings are governed by international codes:

• International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN), which also regulates the naming of fungi,
• International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN),
• International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB).

 Therefore, what is a correct way of scientifically naming, for example, red cabbage?

Because the plant life is so diverse and because humans have always had a keen eye for its surroundings, we categorized them into different groups. The science, dealing with the classification of organisms into the system is called taxonomy, units in the system are taxa. We said that species is a basic taxonomic unit, similar and related plant species are combined into a higher taxon called genus, similar genera (plural of genus) are merging into a family, further similar families are merging into a order, and thus following the hierarchy of taxa to the kingdom of plants.

4.1 The most important levels in the taxonomic plant hierarchy:

There is a 'shortcut' in English, which helps us easily remember the order of taxa in descending order. We make the shortcut by taking the initial letters of the English names of the taxa from the highest (Kingdom) to the basic taxon (Species) and we get the following sentence: King Phil Cry Out For Good Soup. Simple stuff.

4.2 Taxonomic overview of the plants that grow in the systematical field of Botanical Garden UM

The division of flowering plants into monocotyledons and dicotyledons is very old, it is not based on phylogeny and is, therefore, an example of artificial plant classification based on few, easily identifiable signs. For the sake of simplicity, the division has been retained, and some still divide them in this way. Dicotyledons are originally an older group of plants.

There are also units over some taxa, for example, super-order (Superordo), super-family (Superfamilia) and units under taxon, for example trinomen (Subdivisio), subgenus (Subclassis), suborder (Subordo), subfamily (Subfamilia). Between the family and genus are the taxa Tribus (tribe) and Subtribus (subtribe).

To put some plants in the system as closely as possible, we also use taxa below the plant species. The lower systematic categories (taxa) of the species are subspecies, subsp., varieties (Varietas, var.) and form (Forma, f.).

Some attributes that divide plants into monocotyledons and dicotyledons are:

In the groups of monocotyledons and dicotyledons in the systematic field with plant species are planted beds representing the following botanical families:

In the buttercup or crowfoot family we also have greater pasque flower, which belongs to indigenous plant species. There are nearly over 3,000 indigenous plant species in Slovenia.

The greater pasque flower is autochthonous in a certain geographical area (= spontaneous, indigenous or domestic) whose presence is the result of natural processes. Species that are intentionally or unintentionally introduced in an area (not native) are called non-native species. Some non-native species, which settle in the new environment, are extensively expanding and thus threatening autochthonous species. They are called invasive alien species.

Related to autochthonous, but a narrower term is an endemic. An endemic is an indigenous species that can be found in a narrow-bounded area − the species is unique in this area.

The endemic opposite concept is a cosmopolitan plant species. Cosmopolitan is a type of prevalence that extends throughout the whole world or much of the world.

Among the plants there are 22 endemics in Slovenia.

Find out more about plant endemic plants here.

5 My notes on herb garden

5.1 Herbs / medical plants presentation of the collection from Botanic garden UM

The collection of medicinal herbs in the Botanical Garden of University of Maribor was chosen and planted by the technical assistant M. Sc. Ignac Janžekovič. In this collection, there are more than 30 plants that are more or less common in our daily lives. They are known in the form of tea infusions, herbs and as pharmaceutical and cosmetic ingredients. They could be planted in gardens, pots or collected on meadows or in forests.

Herbs have been known in Slovenia for centuries and through the years a lot of them have changed or they just obtained new names or nicknames. Slovenians use more than one name for a single plant.

5.2 Definitions of herbs/medicinal plants

For a botanist herbs are plants used for food, flavouring, medicine, or fragrances for their savoury or aromatic properties. Every year above-ground parts of a plant die and start to grow again in spring. He might add that herbs are herbaceous plants, that is to say they are soft and the stem is not wooden. As an example, he would list the following herbaceous plants: daisy, chamomile, nettle, thyme, oregano and St. John’s worth and the like. On the other hand, plants with woody stems such as trees (fruit trees: apple, pear, plum, apricot, peach, walnut, etc. and timber sorts such as: spruce, fir, beech tree, larch, pine, hawthorn, etc.) and shrubs (hazel, blueberry, aronia, raspberry, bramble, elder tree, etc.) would not be recognized as herbs by a botanist.

For an herbalist herbs are plants with active ingredients. According to the active ingredients herbs are divided into different groups such as aromatic, medical, toxic and those who are used as spices. Therefore, herbs refer to both plants with woody stems (trees or shrub) or without woody stems, algae or lichen.

Herbs – these plants have been used by humans for thousands of years. There are many kinds of them; however, we are continually discovering new sorts of herbs, especially for medical purposes. The medical treatment with herbs is named phytotherapy.

Not all herbs are safe to use. What is more, some of them are toxic and dangerous. Similar to mushrooms, there are some kinds of herbs that mustn’t be used as they, or at least a part of them, might be toxic.

Slovenian Regulation on the Classification of Medicinal Plants sets which medicinal plants (herbs) and preparations made from such plants may be used without the supervision of a medical practitioner and the use of which must always be supervised. The regulation classifies medicinal plants into four groups.

1. Herbs permitted for use in foods, including food supplements, provided that no medicinal claims are made = H
2. Herbs permitted for use in over-the counter medicines = Z
3. Herbs permitted for use in prescription only medicines = ZR
4. Herbs prohibited from use in all types of food and medicinal products = ND

Find out more about the described groups …

Let’s take a look at some of these toxic plants in the surrounding environment. It is good to know them very well; however, it is better to leave them behind.

Hedera helix (common ivy) is an evergreen climbing plant that can grow to heights of 20 to 30 m (66–98 ft.) where suitable surfaces (trees, cliffs, walls) are available. These plants can act as ground covers where no vertical surfaces occur. The ivy is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant. Within its native range, the species is greatly valued for attracting wildlife. The flowers are visited by over 70 species of nectar-feeding insects, and the berries eaten by at least 16 species of birds. But the white juice that comes out of the stem can be toxic for humans.

In Europe, it is frequently planted to cover walls and the government recommends growing it on buildings for its ability to cool the interior in summer, while providing insulation in winter, as well as protecting the covered building from soil moisture, temperature fluctuations and direct exposure to heavy weather. Further uses include weed suppression in plantings, beautifying unsightly facades and providing additional green by growing on tree trunks. When this juice touches our skin, we can react allergic to it and it causes itching.

Nerium oleander is a shrub or a small tree and toxic in all its parts. It is most commonly known as nerium or oleander. You doubtless have seen this plant before, maybe as a decorative plant in a pot, or you admire the beautiful blossoms of it when you walk at the Mediterranean Sea. It is highly toxic, so it is better to leave it alone.

There are some more decorative plants that are toxic to humans: Jimsonweed or Devil's snare (Datura stramonium L.), Castorbean (Ricinus communis L.), Convallaria (Convallaria majalis L.), Rhododendron, Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea L.), Snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis L.), Christmas rose (Helleborus niger L.), Giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Levier), bigleaf hydrangea, French hydrangea (Hydrangea macrophylla).

Most of these plants are considered to have healing active substances if they are given at a lower dosage. However, it is thought that

What is more, you should never harvest plants that are rare or protected. You can find the List of endangered plant species in Slovenia in the Rules on the inclusion of endangered plant and animal species in the Red List. The Rules list all the endangered plant and animal species in Slovenia: pteridophytes, seed plants, mosses, mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, insects and mushrooms. You can find the Red List as Annex 1. The species appear in various threat status categories.

• Ex: Extinct species. A plant that used to grow in Slovenia but has become extinct or was eradicated;
• Ex?: Possibly extinct species. It is known that this plant has once been growing in Slovenia, but nobody can find it now. It is therefore suspected of being extinct. An example of this is Tartary buckwheat or duck wheat (Fagopyrum tataricum).
• E: Endangered species. The abundance of this plant has greatly decreased (to a critical level), or its abundance is rapidly decreasing. These plants are unlikely to survive, if the threat factors will continue to operate. An example of this is the motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca L.).
• V: Vulnerable species. These plants are at risk to fall into the group of extinct species (E) if the threat factors continue to operate. The abundance of this plant is decreasing. The plants are vulnerable to changes. They inhibit the sites especially sensitive to human activities. An example of this is arnica (Arnica montana L.) and the gratiole, common hedgehyssop or herb of grace (Gratiola officinalis L.).
• R: Rare species. Plants that are rarely found in Slovenia. Consequently, in the case of potential endangerment it can quickly fall into the group of endangered species (E). Examples of this are melancholy thistle (Cirsium helenioides L.), and sage (Salvia officinalis L.).
• O: Out of danger species. Plants that are no longer endangered but previously belonged to one of the threat status categories. However, the possibility exists to fall again into one of these categories. An example of this is yew (Taxus baccata L.).
• I: Indeterminate species: Only little information on threats to these plants is available. Therefore, we are not able to classify them in any of the threat status categories.
• K: Insufficiently known species: There are insufficient data to identify its threat. Examples of this are plume thistle and common mallow.

5.3 What are herbs used for?

Herbs have been used by humans for thousands of years (History of herbalism). They are especially known for their active substances, which are produced in biochemical processes called metabolism. There are several active herbal substances, with the main ones being: carbohydrates, fats, flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, bitter substances, tannin, essential oils, vitamins and many others.

In the life of a plant, active ingredients play different roles; they can function as a communication media with the environment, they attract pollinators, some of them protect the plant from disease or pest, others function as a waste product or they serve as an energy supply.

The substances define the usefulness of herbs. Herbs with substances that have a positive effect on the health of humans and animals are called medicinal plants. They are used to prevent, relieve disease signs and chronic diseases and during the recovery period. However, it is important to note that the use of medicinal plants cannot replace the visit of a general practitioner in the case of acute or complex chronic diseases.

Because of the taste and smell of the active ingredients some herbs are used in cooking (kitchen herbs), mixing drinks or food preserving. Others are used for making essential oils that can also be used in cosmetics.

5.4 What part of the herb to harvest and where to harvest them?

In some herbs, the active ingredients are evenly distributed throughout the plant. In such cases, the whole plant can be harvested. On the other hand, the proportion of the active ingredients may be increased in individual parts of a plant. In such cases we only collect certain plant parts (roots, bark, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds).

The best place to harvest herbs is an unpolluted place, so don’t pick them along roads or walking paths; herbs shouldn’t be collected near city centres, factories, rubbish dumps and fields treated with pesticides. Let's not be selfish by picking the number of herbs, but just as we need. When harvesting we must be careful that the herb is minimally damaged. For example, when we collect the roots we don’t dig out all of them. In this way, the herb will recover rapidly and in the spring, it will continue to grow.

The herbs that we collect should be strong and healthy. It’s recommended to pick them on a dry sunny day; preferably in the late morning (but not in the early morning when the plants are still wet from the morning dew). This applies especially to herbs whose active ingredients are essential oils since these are abundant in the late morning.

Whole herbs should be harvested at the flowering stage, flowers when they have just opened, leaves when they are fully developed and fruits when they are ripe. The best time to dig out the roots is in spring or autumn. Bark is collected in spring, when most of the plants' nutrients flow below the bark. The bark can be easily removed with a knife.

When collecting herbs, it is important to put them in a paper bag or a basket. If necessary we can use gloves (useful when collecting nettle and milk thistle), scissors, a knife or a shovel.

Some herbs can be successfully cultivated in our home garden or even in pots on the window shell. In the garden, it is good to place them in an extra bed since most of them are herbaceous perennials. An herbal spiral is especially nice garden feature. Other herbs that last only for one year can be planted along with the vegetables because they may help grow, protect them from pests or improve the taste because of excretion from roots (chamomile, pot marigold, etc.).

5.5 How to dry and store the herbs?

Right after collecting the herbs must be dried because we don’t want the enzymes to decompose all the useful substances from the herb. Before the drying procedure the whole plants or its parts such as leaves, blossoms and fruits should not be cut. To sustain as many substances as possible the herbs should be grinded or cut right before we use them. It is important not to wash the herbs before drying except the roots.

The drying process should be done in a dry and clean place but in the shade and draught to blow away the humidity. The blossoms and whole plants can be hung together in a bouquet on a rope, with the blossoms downward.

If we do not have such a place to dry the herbs we can use a household drying appliance. But be careful, in order not to damage the active substances the temperature should not exceed 47 °C. The plants are dry when the leaves crumble easily and the stems break when bent.

Plants that have been dried and stored properly are called herbal drugs. Completely dry herbal drugs are safely stored in glass jars with a cap on it. Jars are marked with stickers containing the name of the plant, when (year + month) and where it was collected. The stock of some herbal drugs is renewed each year while some can be used for several years. Also, we do not throw older herbal drugs away as they can be used in bath water or compresses.

Without a doubt, the language of science is a Latin language, and so there are no herbs without Latin! Have a look at the table setting out both Latin and English names of drugs.

5.6 How do we use the herbs and its drugs?

Tincture: A tincture is typically an alcoholic extract of plant or animal material or solution of such, or of a low volatility substance. Some solutions of volatile or non-volatile substances are traditionally called spirits, regardless of whether obtained by distillation or not and whether they even contain alcohol. In chemistry, a tincture is a solution that has alcohol as its solvent.

Method of preparation:

• Herbs are put in a container and a spirit of 40% or more ethanol is added, for example, 80 proof vodka or 190 proof rectified spirit (such as Everclear).
• The jar is left to stand for 2–3 weeks and shaken occasionally in order to maximize extraction.

More accurate measuring can be done by combining 1 part herbs with a water-ethanol mixture of 2–10 parts, depending on the herb itself. For most tinctures, however, 1 part water to 5 parts ethanol is typical.

Herbal tinctures are not always made using ethanol as the solvent, though this is most commonly the case. Other solvents include vinegar, glycerol, diethyl ether and propylene glycol, not all of which can be used for internal consumption. Ethanol has the advantage of being an excellent solvent for both acidic and basic (alkaline) constituents.

Glycerine can also be used, but when used in tincturing fashion is generally a poorer solvent. Vinegar, being acidic, is a better solvent for obtaining alkaloids but a poorer solvent for acidic components. For individuals who choose not to ingest alcohol, non-alcoholic (glycerite) extracts offer an alternative for preparations meant to be taken internally.

Tea: It is the most common way to use herbs. After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world.

Infusion: Infusion is the process of extracting chemical compounds or flavours from plant material in a solvent such as water, oil or alcohol, by allowing the material to remain suspended in the solvent over time (a process often called steeping). An infusion is also the name for the resultant liquid. The process of infusion is distinct from decoction, which involves boiling the plant material, or percolation, in which the water passes through the material (as in a coffeemaker).

Decoction: Decoction is a method of extraction by boiling herbal or plant material to dissolve the chemicals of the material, which may include stems, roots, bark and rhizomes. Decoction involves first mashing the plant material to allow for maximum dissolution, and then boiling in water to extract oils, volatile organic compounds and other various chemical substances. Decoction can be used to make herbal teas, leaf teas, coffees, tinctures and similar solutions. Decoctions and infusions may produce liquids with differing chemical properties as the temperature and/or preparation difference may result in more oil-soluble chemicals in decoctions versus infusions.

Breathe in deep and experience the aroma of the herbal tea before you take your first sip. Sip your tea knowing that you’re doing something healthy for your body giving it some much needed hydration. Relax with your cup of tea as you give your body a rush of antioxidants and boost your health. If the tea is a bit too bitter for you, you can add flavour with spices and sweeteners. When you steep herbal tea at the right temperature and for the correct amount of time, you will end up with the perfect cup of a delicious drink.

Herbal syrup: An herbal syrup is prepared by combining a concentrated decoction with either honey or sugar, and sometimes alcohol. The base of such a syrup is a strong herbal decoction. Mixing a decoction with honey or sugar helps to thicken and preserve the decoction. This increases the shelf life of the decoction and often creates a soothing application that benefits situations such as sore throat, cough, dry irritated tissues, and digestive issues. The added sweetener can also help to increase the palatability of some herbs. Many folks, including children, find syrups to be delicious!

Herbal syrups make a yummy addition to beverages and food! Combine a spoonful or two of syrup with carbonated water to create a tasty and healthful herbal soda. You can also make a quick cup of tea by adding a spoonful of syrup to hot water. Enjoy your syrup by drizzling it on foods like yogurt, oatmeal, biscuits, and ice cream or just enjoy by the spoonful.

To prepare herbal syrup we need a big glass jar (volume approximately 3–4 litres) with a wide influx. First, we put the grinded herbs into the jar, then we cover them with sugar. We continue like this with a layer herbs then a layer sugar as long as the jar has space to put the ingredients in. The content will shrink after a while and then we add some more sugar and herbs to fill the jar. The syrup can develop buried in the garden soil or just put in a slightly sunny place. After 5 to 6 weeks we sieve the content and store the syrup in dark bottle and a cool place.

Fresh herb juice is very popular in folk medicine and is prepared from freshly harvested plants. The juice can be prepared in several ways:

• a) the fruits and juicy roots are placed directly into the juicer (it is even better if we have a small hydraulic press);
• b) before blending the green parts of the plant should be moistened;
• c) water can be added to some parts of the plant before mixing them in a blender and then strained through a thick strainer.

Best way to use it is to take a teaspoon of the juice several times a day, usually before eating.

Herbal oil: Herbs are renowned for their ability to soothe rashes, bug bites, minor cuts and other common skin irritations. If you’ve got an herb garden at home or access to herbs at your local market, why not try making herb-infused oils to add to your family’s medicine chest? To prepare herbal oil you will need: dried, coarsely chopped herbs, oil (olive, sunflower, almond, cannabis, etc.), a glass jar, a strainer and cheesecloth or fine-weave towel and a bottle or jar for storage.

1. Prepare your jar. Make sure the jar is clean and very dry. Again, any water in the jar can lead to spoilage.
2. Fill the jar to the top with herbs.
3. Pour oil over the herbs slowly. Using a chopstick or knife, move the herbs around to make sure all air pockets are filled with oil. Add enough oil to completely cover all the herbs, filling right up to the brim of the jar.
4. Cover the jar, give it a few shakes, and put it in a cool place inside your house. Every now and then, give your jar a shake. It will be ready to use in 3–6 weeks. The jar may ooze or leak a little, so place it on a plate or towel.
5. Strain the oil into your storage bottles through a cloth-lined strainer. Give the herbs a final few squeezes to get the last of that herb-soaked goodness.
6. Cork and label your bottles. The oil should last at room temperature for up to a year; two years if you add a capsule or two of vitamin E, a natural preservative.

Herbal balm: For preparing the balm, the following are required: herbal oil, refined beeswax and essential oils (optional). Heat the oil (not too hot) and add the wax. The right proportion is about 1-part wax and 7.5 parts herbal oil. The proportions can differ, depending on how dense we want the balm. If more wax is added, the finished product will be more compact and slightly less greasy. When the wax completely dissolves in the herb oil, essential oil is added and the warm mixture is poured into small containers or bottles left open until the balm is solidified. Thus prepared balm is kept in a dark and not too warm place.

5.7 Description of certain herbs

Today thousands of herbs are known in the world. In the following table, there is a selection of 30 herbs that always come handy. Remember - we collect herbs for a period of one year; then they begin to lose their healing values. We collect them every year, but be careful when harvesting as we need to leave enough plants or plant residues from which new plants can sprout each year.

Table of specific herbs

5.8 History of herbalism

The use of plants as medicines dates as far back as the origin of humankind. Even animals are known to have consumed plants when ill. The use of plants began long before the first records of these plants appeared. Through trial and error humans discovered that some plants are good for food, and that some produce positive bodily changes and healing. What was being so attractive to many people were the pleasant smell of plants, similarities between plant herb bodies and parts of the human body. Over the millennia these observations were passed orally from generation to generation.” Find out more ...

One of the earliest Chinese herbalists was the Chinese Emperor, Chi'en Nung (Shennong) who wrote the book Pen Tsao also known as Classic of Materia Medica.” He lived about 3,700 years BC. In his book, he described over 200 domestic herbs. The collection of Papirus Ebers describing over 700 medicinal plants was introduced in 1500 BC in Egypt. Unfortunately, from the oldest literature on herbs, only a few remained.

Greeks and Romans

Throughout the centuries, many thinkers spread knowledge of useful medicinal plants. The famous Greek physician Hippocrates (460−377 BC), who is often referred to as the "Father of Modern Medicine" used many herbal remedies. He once wrote "Let Your Food Be Your Medicine; and Your Medicine be Your Food." His work includes a detailed description of some 200 medicinal plants.

The useful knowledge of the Greeks was well taken over and expanded by the Romans, who already had a rich history of cultivating useful medicinal plants. One of the greatest names from the time of the Romans is Pliny the Younger (23 to 79 AD), the author of Natural History, presenting a “valuable resource for the medicinal uses of plants in ancient medicine”.

During the time of the collapse of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the 8th century of the middle ages knowledge of herbs was transmitted primarily by the oral tradition.

Middle Ages

Herbalism was revived by Charles the Great (742−814 BC), who also instituted some important state decisions. These decisions included regulations and instructions for the cultivation of spices and herbs, regulations on the care and planting of berries and fruit trees in farms and castle gardens. This knowledge was extended primarily to the monasteries north and south of the Alps. St. Gallen from around the year 820 is an example of the monastery which today still benefits from the distant forgotten knowledge.

Another great work and research in the field of medicinal herbs done in the Middle Ages follows.

You can find some more useful information on History of herbalism here.

The medical school at Salerno, established in 984 in Italy, was one of the most famous medical schools that were being established all over Europe. One of the crowning achievements of the school was a poem on health, “Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum”.

Paracelsus (1493−1577) was a Swiss traveller, physician and alchemist who searched for knowledge across Europe. His name was only remembered as that of a great charlatan. People did not appreciate him as they thought he followed an entirely different rationale.

Pietro Andrea Gregorio Mattioli (Matthiolus) (1501−1577) was an Italian physician who wrote Dioscorides' Materia Medica, including commentary and added plants not found in Dioscorides. Latin edition was published in 1554.

Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) was a Swedish botanist and physician. He was the important influence of understanding herbalism and plants in general. The first academic paper published by Linnaeus was Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum in which he assigned sex to plants, the field that had received little discussion. In 1753, he wrote Species Plantarum, where he described about 6000 plants. “This was the first work to consistently apply binomial names and was the starting point for the naming of plants.” He was very well aware of the fact that he would not be able to describe the entire plant kingdom himself, so he sent his disciples to the world.

Since the end of the 18th century and throughout the 19th century, scientists saw the experiments as the leading feature of any understanding of science. As a consequence, a movement of dividing medicine into classical and alternative began. Approaches to the classical methods use synthetic preparations which may be very effective as they helped prevent a wide variety of diseases, which could have been fatal for humans a hundred years ago. However, several advantages of herbal medicine should also be considered. One of the advocates of natural healing is the priest and herbalist Sebastian Kneipp (1821−1897 BC) who is “most commonly associated with the Kneipp Cure form of hydrotherapy, the application of water through various methods”. He claimed that besides classical medicine natural healing offers many valuable substances that strengthen the immune system, cleanse the body and the blood, accelerate digestion, strengthen the nerves, etc.

Herbal medicine in the areas of today’s Slovenia

In the areas of today’s Slovenia, naturopathy or alternative medicine over the centuries occurred in the form of witchcraft as people preferred "wizards" who had a special view of nature and were closer to the gods. Wizards harvested herbs and medicinal plants and used them not only for ritual purposes, but also for the treatment of humans and animals. To this day the knowledge of herbal medicine has been preserved by word of mouth. Of course, the monasteries in the Middle Ages had a great deal of the knowledge in this field since monks were copying useful books. Unfortunately, these books include only a little knowledge that was possessed by "wizards" during the 10th century and before. An example of such a monastery is 17^th century monastery from the Olimje castle in Podčetrtek, around which they cultivated medicinal herbs. In the same century, the first pharmacy was established there. In 1569 the first doctor obtained a university degree in the then Carniola. However, such graduates only diagnosed, the remaining work was done by surgeons and quacks. At that time, a doctor, botanist and pharmacist was seen as one person.

The Glory of the Duchy of Carniola by Janez Vajkard Valvasor provides some common names for medicinal plants and their uses.

City Idrija was an interesting place in the Middle Ages and later centuries, many times visited by Paracelsus and Mattioli. Physical mutations probably caused by the hard life of the miners were identified in early and Middle Ages. Janez Anton Scopoli (1723−1788) came to Idrija in 1754. He was then appointed as physician of the mercury mines in Idrija, but later he also became famous for botanical, mineralogical and medical works. In the same year, the first pharmacy was established in Idrija. In 1767 Baltazar Hacquet (1739−1815), an enthusiastic botanist, was appointed as miners' surgeon in Idrija.

In 1773 Franc Hladnik, an important scientist of European standing was born in Idrija. In 1810 the Ljubljana Botanical Garden, the first Slovenian botanical garden, started operating under his leadership. The Garden was founded during the reign of Napoleon when Ljubljana was the capital of the Illyrian Provinces.

An important source of folk knowledge about herbs has always been non-national work. Only gradually the Slovenian word has been found in written and printed form. The oldest Slovene reference to the plants can be found in Dalmatin's Bible dating back from 1584, where approximately 100 different kinds of plants are mentioned. In addition, many works were translated and edited in the Slovene language such as “Arcniske bukve”.

The situation today

The Slovene folk medicine used about 500 medicinal plants. This number is above average in comparison with other European countries. Today, this number is much smaller and is still decreasing. Treatment with medicinal plants has been replaced by classical medicine, which is closely related to pharmacy, which produces medicines based on plant extracts and chemistry knowledge.

The medicinal herb market is mainly supplied by individual, usually specialized farms. The processing of herbs may start to be implemented when farmers have gained the permit for a supplementary farm activity as well as additional equipment for the production. However, smaller amounts of medicinal herbs continue to be harvested by people themselves. The knowledge of herbal medicine and medicinal plants is nevertheless spread among people; what is more, the number of young people interested in the field is increasing.

6 Fruit and vegetable garden

6.1 Fruit and vegetable garden in Botanical garden of the University of Maribor Pivola

In the fruit and vegetable garden edible and useful plants are planted both yearly and permanently. The fruit and vegetable garden was created in 2014 as a result of the Slovenian-Austrian cooperation in the Health-Care NE project - Awareness of a sustainable diet (you can find out more about the project if you follow the link (the resulting learning modules, educational film and the collection of the Alps-Adriatic Biosimpension "Eko goes to school")). The garden is equipped with information stands and the supply is managed in an organic way.

The organic way of producing and processing food is the most sustainable of all the systems, since it takes into account the balance of the soil-plant-animal-human system. What is permitted to do in organic farming is unambiguously written in the strict European and Slovene legislation. Verification of compliance with the law is carried out by authorized certification bodies and this is done along the entire path through which organic food comes on our plate.

As the name suggests, it is a fruit and vegetable garden – it’s similar to what’s in your homes. Thus, similarly to your fruit and vegetable garden the Botanical Garden of UM grows plant species, which according to their use in the culinary are classified as vegetables and fruit.

You probably know that vegetables do not grow every year on the same part of the garden. They are as nomads; they migrate to different parts of the garden and so do they in the Garden of UM. We call this crop rotation system.

In the garden we can also find a compost in which the organic material is deposited, and by microorganisms processed into compost. That the compost with which we actually feed (fertilize) plants is as good as possible, only those materials that microorganisms can process are deposited in the compost. Therefore, we cannot simply put anything on it.

The fruit and vegetable garden also has a hotel. For whom it is intended and how many stars it has, you might ask? If properly placed for useful organisms (ladybugs, green lacewings, wild bees, earwigs and others), the bug or insect hotel can be awarded a five-star rating. A great idea for a smaller garden, for the elderly and physically impaired is a raised garden bed set by the principles of permaculture. As you can see in the Botanical Garden, vegetables planted in the raised garden bed grow immensely.

In the fruit part of the garden strawberries and more important fruit shrubs (currant, gooseberries, raspberries, blackberries, highbush blueberries, aronia, etc.) are planted. Other ways for raising fruit plants (vines, kiwifruit, hardy kiwi) are also presented.

In 2017 they added some varieties of fruit trees, grafted on dwarf rootstock to the collection of fruit shrubs. Varieties of apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches and persimmon were added to the collection with a total of 38 trees. The collection is intended primarily for practical demonstration of pruning and fruit production.

In order for the vegetables and fruits to produce the most beautiful and excellent flavours, the garden should be properly designed, fertilized and supplied.

6.2 Agriculture and the fact that Slovenia is not an agricultural superpower

For 2.5 million years humans fed themselves by gathering plants and hunting animals that were not domesticated. Everything changed about 10,000 years ago, when our ancestors settled down, established permanent settlements and began cultivation and breeding of animals and plants. Agriculture (lat. ager – field, cultura - cultivation or growing) is, therefore, the first and oldest major human activity.

Agriculture developed differently and independently according to climatic conditions. For example, archaeological findings show that pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia, rice and soybeans, as well as chickens, were harvested and breed in China. In the region of the Fertile Crescent (today Egypt, Turkey and Iran) wheat, barley, peas, lens, chickpeas and flax were domesticated. Cattle was domesticated in what is today in Turkey and Pakistan. Potatoes, cotton, beans, pumpkin, tomato, pepper, corn, alpaca and many others come from South and Central America, particularly from the Andes.

Agriculture is divided into basic branches: field crop production, vegetable production, fruit growing, viticulture and livestock production. The space we are cultivating and growing on is called agricultural land. Depending on the use of the cultivated area, we further divide the area into fields, gardens, orchards, olive groves, vineyards, hop gardens or plantations, pastures and meadows.

In one of the talks at the beginning of our acquaintance farmer Max has mentioned that Slovenia was not and never will be an agricultural superpower. The reason for this lies in several facts and natural factors that define our country:

Slovenia is one of the most forested countries in the European Union (after Sweden and Finland; in the 3rd place), as more than half (almost 60%) of the area is covered with forests.

In Slovenia only about 32% of the area is intended for agricultural production. This agricultural land together represents 494,641 ha. Of these areas, there is only 479.589 ha of agricultural land used for agricultural purposes - Utilized Agricultural Area (UAA).

As much as 74.2% of the utilized agricultural area (UAA) is of those which is called area with natural and other specific constraints, that is, less-favoured areas for agriculture activities (LFAs). In Slovenia, these are mostly hilly and mountainous areas.

Nearly a fifth (17%) of the territory of Slovenia (about 345,000 ha) has been declared a water protection area (WPA*). Since agricultural activity may have a negative impact on the quality of drinking water, special restrictions apply to the WPA for agriculture.

Water protection areas are protected by municipal ordinances and government regulations. They are designed to protect the body of water used or intended for public drinking supply against pollution or other types of burdens that could affect the health adequacy of water or its quantity.

Slovenia fits into areas with an above-average biodiversity. To preserve the number of plant and animal species, as much as 39.7% of the surface of Slovenia belongs to the protected areas of nature. These areas therefore fit into territory under European network Natura 2000 and protected areas (national, regional, landscape parks and nature reserves). Even in protected areas, special restrictions apply to agricultural activity.

About 26,000 species of life live on the territory of Slovenia. 800 of these are endemic animal and 66 endemic plant species. Slovenia accounts for less than 0.004% of the Earth’s area and 0.014% of Earth’s land, but more than 1% of all known living species on Earth live on this surface and more than 2% of the land-based species. So many species in such a small area places our country amongst the naturally richest areas of Europe and even the world.

Slovenia is truly not an agricultural superpower. However, agriculture is an extremely important industry sector in the country.

Why?

… because food supply is one of the strategically most important areas of each country, since it meets basic human needs and affects the health and quality of life of the population.

A measure that tells us the extent to which domestic production is sufficient for domestic consumption is called self-sufficiency rate.

Do you know how much Slovenia is self-sufficient? That much in 2016.

In addition to the strategic importance of food provision, agriculture also has other socially important non-productive functions. Thus, properly developed and sustainable agriculture contributes decisively to environmental protection (contributes to the quality of water, soil, air), contributes significantly to biotic (agricultural) diversity, shapes the landscape (aesthetic and natural landscape value). Equally, agriculture, with its economic and social role, plays a vital role in the vitality and densification of the countryside. Therefore, we say agriculture is a multifunctional industry.

6.3 How do we produce food and what is the impact of agriculture on the environment and health?

In agriculture, we know three types of food production: conventional, integrated and organic farming. There are two ways to process this food: conventional and organic. Basically, these types differ in the way the farmers use fertilisers and the usage of easily soluble mineral fertilizer, synthetic plant protection means or pesticides, antibiotics for preventive treatment of animals and the use of genetically modified organism (GMO).

From all the economic industry in the world, beside traffic and heavy industry, farming is the biggest environment polluter. Farming – especially intense conventional, which is also by far the most extended, requires a huge amount of energy (fossil fuel), water (food processing, animal feeding), synthetic (easy soluble) mineral fertilizers and phytopharmaceutical means (or products) or as we know them pesticides (herbicides, fungicides, insecticides). This type of farming is hazardous for soil and water because the mineral fertilizers and pesticides may leach down into the groundwater. Then they accumulate in the plants and that’s how it ends in the fodder for animals and food for humans. Often the intensive conventional farming does not rotate the crops, and with adding chemical substances the biotic diversity lowers (biodiversity).

A big problem in farming is also the deforestation for farming purposes. This is happening mainly in South America, where the new farmland is used to grow soya, then the soya is used as a protein fodder in Europe.

Now, after the growing awareness of the hazards that conventional farming brings, the people try to reduce it and produce quality and safe food for the consumer. It is commonly known that organic food is of higher quality, contains more vitamins and minerals and simultaneously the negative effects for the environment are much lower. You can find the differences and description of all farming types in the addition.

6.3.1 Conventional farming

Conventional farming, also known as industrial agriculture, refers to farming systems which include the use of synthetic chemical fertilizers, pesticides, genetically modified organisms, Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations, heavy irrigation, intensive tillage and production in monoculture. Thus, conventional agriculture is typically highly resource and energy intensive, but also highly productive. Despite its name, conventional agricultural methods have only been in development since the late Nineteenth Century, and did not become widespread until after World War 2.

Pesticide

6.3.2 Integrated farming

Integrated farming or integrated production is a whole organic farm management system which aims to deliver more sustainable agriculture. An obtained certificate for integrated production under the national quality scheme assures the consumer that the products were produced under the technological guidelines set out in advance and that they are compliant with the national rules laying down technological requirements and restrictions on integrated production of fruit, crops, grapes and vegetables. Each year the expert working group draws up Technological guidelines for each category separately. The technological guidelines lay down detailed production rules and conditions for fruit, crops, grapes and vegetables, which are each year confirmed and published by the MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food). The rules and technological guidelines are obligatory for producers under the integrated production scheme.

Integrated production is based on stricter requirements on production and the use of plant protection products (PPP). The scheme is available to all producers meeting the requirements on integrated production and providing a complete traceability of the products. Each year the producers are controlled by an inspection body appointed on the basis of the regulation governing the technical and organisation conditions to be fulfilled by an organisation controlling the integrated agricultural products and foodstuffs. The inspection body controls the compliance with the provisions of the technological guidelines and the rules on integrated production.

As mentioned above, integrated production includes only the production of plants (vegetables, fruit, grapes, field crop) and certainly not the animal breeding and processing.

Product labels that are used for products or foodstuffs being produced in an integrated way

RETURN

6.3.3 Organic farming

»We do not inherit the earth from our ancestors; we borrow it from our children«

(Wendell Berry, an American novelist, poet, environmental activist, cultural critic, and farmer)

Organic farming:

One of the most efficient ways for sustainable agricultural use of natural resources is organic farming as it significantly contributes to the provision of public goods, preservation and improvement of biodiversity, preservation of drinking water sources, conservation of agricultural landscape and environmental protection. Furthermore, it ensures the production of high-quality food and healthy food with high nutritional contents and has the best possible impact on the sustainable management of the non-renewable natural resources and exerting the principle on adequate animal rearing.

In organic farming method production control is mandatory. A certificate issued by an inspection body is a guarantee to consumers on special production methods of organic products and foodstuffs. Organic farming relies on fertilizers of organic origin such as animal manure, compost manure, green manure and bone meal, and places emphasis on techniques such as crop rotation and companion planting. For instance, naturally occurring pesticides such as pyrethrin and rotenone are permitted, while synthetic fertilizers and pesticides are generally prohibited.

All this is controlled under the legislation of EU. There were some organizations earlier to lead, unite and assist the organic movement in its full diversity. This worldwide organization is called International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements – IFOAM.

… IFOAM guarantees a control from the field to plates (= insurance for the consumer + safety for the farmer)

Komentar na shemo zgoraj:

• Improved biodiversity
• Smaller ecological footprint
• Inspection from the fields to the plates = from field to fork

What rules must be obeyed by organic farmers and processors?

The scheme underneath shows how the system works. Everyone who is involved in the supplier chain of organic food (farmers, processers, warehouse employees, merchants, importers, commercial agents) must obey certain rules under the legislation of the EU and, in the Slovenian case, Slovenia legislation. Some decide to accept stricter rules like the ones from a Union of Slovenian Organic Farmers Associations (USOFA) named Biodar ("The Gift of Life") and the international standard Demeter.

What terms and expressions can be used for organic products in Slovenia?

The official term that is used for organic food production and processing in Slovenia is ecological farming. So, the products which are made from such farming are called ecological (abbreviated eco) foodstuffs, but the term biological (abbreviated bio) can also be used. For instance, these prefixes can be used as bio yoghurt – eco yoghurt, bio flour – eco flour, bio juice – eco juice … the wrong prefix for organic groceries may confuse you, but if this applies to Slovene products, it is organic. The term organic is in Slovene the wrong prefix and should not be used but we can find them on many products because of the translation from English. Probably because the lack of knowledge in organic farming and the inconsistency of the translations.

What are the key prohibited and allowed products in organic farming?

Since the nutrients in liquid-soluble mineral fertilizers are in ionic form, they can be easily leached into groundwater, which can lead to nitrate contamination of the drinking water (the Slovenia position), whilst excess nitrate concentration in water and food is harmful to animals and people.

This is the case, for example, with Bt-corn, which is genetically engineered to produce a bacterial toxin that kills European corn borer larvae and has genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). By definition, genetic engineering is not a part of organic farming, it is a new technology (first GM crop in 1994), and some experts also point to the negative or often unknown effects of the use of GMO in the environmental sense, the impact on human and animal health and fertility.

More about GMO.

Therefore, battery cages for laying hens (including furnished or enriched cages) in organic agriculture are prohibited.

Videos on organic livestock farming

Organic farming in the EU

EU Comission, Organic farming: Kids' corner

What is organic farming?

The organic farm

More about ionising radiation.

Who controls organic farming?

According to the EU regulation on organic farming (controls and inspections), the verification of compliance with the production and processing of food is ensured by authorized institutions called certification bodies (CB). They function in an independent, impartial and competent way as all EU certification bodies should operate according to the SIST EN ISO/IEC 17065:2012 standard.

It is also agreed (the EU regulation on organic farming) that all certification bodies by the EU have their own codes. The codes are composed of three parts:

• the two-letter code of the Member State (e. g. Slovenia = SI, Austria = AT, Hungary = HU, Croatia = HR, Italy = IT);
• abbreviations used in official use for organic farming in each country (e. g. SI = EKO, AT = BIO, HU = ÖKO, IT = BIO);
• the three-digit individual number of CB.

In Slovenia we have four certification bodies in organic farming:

KON-CERT – Institute for inspection and certification in agriculture and in silviculture Code: SI-EKO-001 prosim, dodajte v SI: In the picture you can see a trademark appearing on organic foodstuffs certified by KON-CERT.

IKC UM – Institute for the Control and Certification of University of Maribor Code: SI-EKO-002 In the picture you can see a trademark appearing on organic foodstuffs certified by IKC UM.

Bureau veritas – Bureau veritas d.o.o. Code: SI-EKO-003 In the picture you can see a Bureau veritas logo.

TÜV Süd Sava – Tüv süd sava d.o.o. Code: SI–EKO-004 (in Slovenia since 2017) In the picture you can see a TÜV SÜD SAVA logo.

Certification bodies perform two procedures: inspection and certification.

Inspection is an on-the-spot check. It is implemented in all those involved in the supply chain, that is to say from farm to shop, or ‘from farm to fork’ so to speak. Inspection shall be carried out at least once a year. It is carried out by a qualified inspector of the selected certification body.

How to inspect organic farming and what controls are reviewed by inspectors can be seen in this video.

Certification is a procedure in which the certification body, on the basis of an inspector's report, checks the compliance of the plant operation with the applicable organic farming rules. Should the certification procedure show the compliance with all relevant rules and regulations the plant receives a certificate.

The certificate is an official document which ensures that everything is done as it should be = in accordance with the provisions set out for organic farming.

The farmer / processor certifies the ecological status for:

• the foodstuffs,
• the period of validity (date of issue),
• CB, which controlled and certified the farm/processing plant.

Non-certified products/stuffs should not be marketed as organic foods.

Where can I verify the validity of the certificate?

On the websites of the Ministry of Agricultural, Food and Forestry Policy

When is the crop/food considered organic?

When the conversion period is passed successfully. 'Conversion’ means the transition from non-organic to organic farming within a given period of time, during which the provisions concerning the organic production have been applied.

The conversion period is a period from the commencement of the control (when the operator has notified his/her activity to CB or from the date of last unauthorised uses of products) until the achievement of ECO (organic) status for the products / foods.

The conversion period takes varying lengths of time.

Products of plant origin:

2 years = 24 months (annual plants, grasslands, perennial forage)

3 years = 36 months (permanent crops)

Products of animal origin:

1 year = 12 months (beekeeping)

With regard to the rearing of herbivores (ruminants, horses) the duration of the conversion period is linked to the conversion period of areas producing forage (= 2 years).

With regard to the rearing of non-herbivores (chickens, pigs), which are not fed with forages and roughage (grass, hay, silage), the conversion takes 1 year (= the conversion of the outer surfaces that serve as an access to open air).

Reduction of the conversion period is possible, but that is up to the Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Food on presentation of supporting material.

Video: The conversion to organic farming

Organic food labelling requirements

Rules of organic farming apply to food, feed and seeds. These must obligatorily be marked with the official organic logo of the EU (Euro Leaf).

EU legislation does not cover tobacco, textiles, cosmetics, cleaning products and foodstuffs of hunting and fishing. Therefore, these products and foodstuffs should not be marked with the official EU logo!

In addition, those foodstuffs for which there are no common rules in EU legislation shall not be labelled by the EU organic logo, although individual countries have introduced them as their national rules. Slovenian national regulations include:

• rabbit farming,
• breeding of game in enclosures (deer, fallow deer, mouflon),
• catering (restaurants: organic restaurants/inns, organic menus, or organic meals).

The aforementioned must obligatorily be labelled by the national organic logo.

Glossary

RETURN

Botanist is a scientist who knows a great deal about plants, the way they grow, the differences between them and the like.

Herbalist is a person who grows, collects, sells, or specializes in the use of herbs. He uses herbs in combination with other natural products or mixtures such as honey, wax, oil, clay, etc. What is more, he makes tinctures, ointments, herbal oils and herbal tea blends.

Herbaceous perennials are plants that do not have much wood and its stems are green and soft. Their above-ground growth largely or totally dies back in winter.

Woody plants or plants with woody stems are plants whose stems and larger roots are reinforced with wood. Their above- and below-ground parts do not die in winter. Woody plants are usually trees, shrubs, or lianas.

Kitchen herbs are often referred to as spices. However, many herbs such as tarragon, oregano, basilica, etc. may be used as spices.

Phytotherapy (also called herbal medicine or herbalism) refers to the use of plant-derived medications in the treatment and prevention of disease.

Pharmacy is an interdisciplinary subject concerned with science and medicine. It also covers the area of natural treatment and the production of medicinal products based on plant extracts.

Scientific names of plants are unique plant and animal names used across the world by scientists and other professionals regardless of the language they speak or write, because scientific names are always Latin or Latinized words. Scientific names reduce confusion and make communication much more certain. The scientific names consist of two terms, the genus name (similarly to surnames in humans) and the species name. The genus name always starts with a capital letter and the species name always starts with a small letter. There are rules to follow when writing scientific names: the genus name is always italicized or underlined (in handwriting). The genus name and the species name are always followed by an author citation (citing the person who first validly published a botanical name). You can find out more on scientific names of plants here.

Herbal drugs are dried herbs or dried parts of herbs.

pathogens - Fungal and bacterial infections on plant parts that can survive the composting process and can again infect the same crops

PPP - Plant protection products are chemical-synthetic substances used in agriculture for the protection and treatment of crops