This time we are on a tour of the rock garden. A characteristic of this one is that it has three sections. The three parent rock sections are separately built upon: limestone, granodiorite and serpentinite. The middle forms a habitat that mimics the conditions found in Kraško polje (Karst field).
These very different parts of the rock garden mimic nature in the sense that with the weathering of rocks, the ground around them forms similar conditions found in different natural sites specific to Slovenia.
How was the rock garden made and what is it made of? The rock garden here was made in 2000 and 2001 and stretches on a surface of 800m2. For it to be built 450m3 of earth 25m3 of granodiorite, 25m3 of limestone rocks and 8m3 of serpentinite, amphibolite and cizlakite had to be brought in. The only known deposit of cizlakite (quartz monzogabbro; a green plutonic rock) in the world has been found near Cezlak, a small settlement on the southern slope of the Pohorje in the Municipality of Slovenska Bistrica in northeastern Slovenia.
A rock garden is a garden that mimics natural plant growth around rocks. In addition to plants, it also features rocks and boulders. It is built in a way that it provides a natural growing site for the plants that grow naturally on rocks and open, sunny sites. Most of the plants that grow in this rock garden come from different natural sites around Slovenia, some of which are protected and are found on the Red List of protected species.
Geology is a science of solid, liquid and gassy matter of which the planet Earth is formed. Pedology focuses on the forming and development of ground from the parent rock and the processes that take place there.
Rocks are natural matter, formed of several small grains of one or more different minerals that our planet is composed of.
From atom to planet. (→ link: na spodnjo shemo)
The Earth is made up of the inner core, outer core, the mantle and the crust. In the outer core, crust or lithosphere we can find solid rocks that form continental and oceanic tectonic plates. Under the crust in the Earth’s mantle, the rocks melt because of the high temperatures and pressure. The completely melted rock in deep under the Earth’s crust is called magma.
Because of the slow movement of the tectonic plates, which can move towards, against or from each other, the Earth’s crust forms cracks through which the magma(volcanoes) flows to the surface, then it is called lava.
What are the infernal conditions in the interior of our planet that cause the rocks to melt, shake the ground and make continents form and disappear?
(→ link: na spodnje besedilo, sheme in spletne povezave)
The planet's layers have different chemical and physical compositions. This is because of the rising temperature and pressure near the centre of the Earth. (slika notranjosti zemlje)
The outer layer is called the crust. It is composed of solid rocks. We know two types of crust: continental and oceanic. Under the crust is the Earth’s mantle which is still solid under the crust, but gets progressively more viscose as it nears the centre of the planet. Because of the high temperatures the outer core is liquid, but the inner core stays solid and pure iron as the high pressure prevents it from liquefying.
The lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates. There are seven major and several smaller ones.
The large plates are: the Pacific Plate, the North American Plate, the Eurasian Plate, the African Plate, the Antarctic Plate, the Indo-Australian Plate and the South American Plate. Slovenia belongs to a smaller tectonic plate called the Adriatic plate.
The asthenosphere is part of the Earth’s mantle and reaches app. 400km deep into the Earth. Because of the conditions that are present in this layer it is formed out of rocks that are heated up to almost their melting point. The asthenosphere is therefore partly liquid and partly ductile. This allows the lithospheric tectonic plates to float on the asthenosphere.
The plates move with a velocity of a few cm a year to 15 cm/year (similarly to the growth of hair).
Lithospheric plates move in three different ways:
The plates are moving away from each other. Areas where two plates move away from one another are called divergent boundaries. This is found on the bottom of the oceans, near long underwater mountain ranges that host active and sleeping volcanoes. When the plates move apart, magma protrudes through the crack that is formed. In the oceans this magma quickly solidifies and covers the crack. This process is repeated and is the cause that the ocean’s base expands a few cm a year. These kinds of divergent boundaries are also found on the Earth’s surface. Such an example is in Iceland, where the Eurasian and North American plates move apart, creating the Sifra rift. In some parts the plates are so near, that divers can swim between them and touch them.
The plates can grind along each other. This creates transform boundaries. The most known is the San Andreas Fault in California.
If the plates slide towards each other it creates divergent boundaries. This results in the destruction of the crust. The area is called a subduction zone.
There are three scenarios:
Oceanic plus continental: the thinner oceanic crust moves under the other and melts away. This creates deep sea trenches like The East Pacific Rise.
Oceanic plus oceanic: one of the crusts moves under the other. This can create a range of islands, for example the Japanese, Aleutian and Mariana island arcs.
Continental plus continental: this scenario creates a collision. Great mountain ranges are created because of the pressure that arises at the site of the collision. The Indian and Eurasian plates collided app. 10 million years ago and created the Himalayas. The Alps were similarly created when the Adriatic plate broke away from the African tectonic plate and later crashed into the Eurasian plate.
Plate tectonics and volcanic activity results in earthquakes and the seismic waves move from the centre of the quake outwards under the ground (hypocentre). The spot on the surface, directly over the break of the tectonic plate is where the results of the earthquake are the most prominent, this is the epicentre.
A seismograph is a device with which we measure the activity of the seismic waves. The intensity of the earthquake is measured with magnitude. This is seismic energy that is released in the epicentre and is used to measure the effects of the earthquake on objects, buildings and nature.
The first scale was introduced by American seismologist Charles Francis Richter (the Richter scale) in 1953. The scale is logarithmical which means that every level of the earthquake is almost 23-times stronger than that before. The scale has 9 magnitudes, from 1 to 9, the upper most level is not defined. The largest magnitude of 9,5 was in 1960 in Chile. In theory the quakes on Earth should not reach a larger magnitude than that, without an outside source of energy. Seismologists think that the Earth was shaken with a magnitude of 13, when an asteroid fell on it, almost 66 million years ago. This event is also thought to have brought on the extinction of many animal and plant species and the sudden climate change that occurred. A magnitude of 15 is considered lethal to everyone on Earth.
In Slovenia the European Macro seismic Scale is used. It has 12 levels (from I- undetectable, V- light damage on buildings to XII- completely destructive).
Because Slovenia is on the juncture of three tectonic plates (Eurasian, African and Adriatic) it is considered as an active earthquake area. Even though high magnitudes do not happen in Slovenia, the earthquakes’ effects can be rather destructive because of their narrow epicentres. The most dangerous is the middle and NW part of the country. In the past there have been 80 earthquakes with VI-VII magnitudes with 5 earthquakes, that had epicentres outside of Slovenia.
Vir: ARSO
Picture: Earthquake danger in Slovenia
The processes that happen in the core of the Earth and its surface cause the forming of rocks. The process is described with a Rock Cycle. According to the formation we define them in groups: igneous rock, sedimentary and metamorphic rock.
The rock cycle. (link na shemo, besedilo, povezave)
As we can see from the rock cycle: igneous rocks form through the cooling of lava or magma.
Igneous rock. In the case of magma solidifying in the Earth’s interior, the process creates rocks which we call intrusive rock. The magma solidifies slowly under the surface which gives intrusive rocks an even structure and big mineral grains.
When lava solidifies, it creates exterior rock. Lava cools quickly and it gives this kind of rock a less even structure and smaller minerals.
We count mineral veins as igneous rock.
The rock on the Earth’s surface disintegrates because of the process of weathering. Weathering happens when natural forces (water, ice, heating and cooling, wind, water flow) disintegrate rocks to small, fine particles.
Sedimentary rock is formed through sedimentation and cementation of mineral and organic particles. Therefore, we often find fossils in sedimentary rock. This kind of rock forms through the process of lithification.
Metamorphic rock forms through the process of transformation of the two previously mentioned rock types. It occurs in the deeper parts of the Earth’s crust, where extreme pressure and temperature is found (pressure > 100 MPa and temperature> 150 °C).
Now we can better understand, how the rocks in the rock garden were formed.
The rocks that form the rock garden are:
granodiorite, that is an igneous and intrusive rock; serpentinite, that is a metamorphic rock and limestone that is a biochemical sedimentary rock.
How do the specific rocks look like and in what categories do we include them?(→ link: na spodnjo preglednico)
| Group | Formation | Characteristics | Sub-groups | Rock |
| IGNEOUS ROCK | Are formed during the heating and cooling of magma or lava. | Do not let water seep through. Kristal structure and even weathering. | INTRUSIVE ROCK Magma solidifies deep in the Earth's crust. | granite |
| syenite | ||||
| granodiorite | ||||
| tonalite | ||||
| gabbro | ||||
| peridotite | ||||
| EXTRUSIVE ROCK Lava solidifies on the surface. Also known as volcanic rock. | porphyry | |||
| ceratophryid | ||||
| dacite | ||||
| portir | ||||
| trachyte | ||||
| andesite | ||||
| diabase | ||||
| basalt | ||||
| ROCK VEINS Magma flows in cracks in existing rock and solidifies. | aplite | |||
| pegmatite | ||||
| SEDIMENTARY ROCK | Form through sedimentation, weathering or erosion of other rock or biological matter. | Have recognisable layers and may contain fossils. | MECHANICAL Form from particles that are the result of weathering and erosion. | breccia |
| conglomerate | ||||
| sandstone | ||||
| flysch | ||||
| claystone | ||||
| marl | ||||
| mudstone | ||||
| PYROCLASTIC They are formed through the settling of volcanic dust. | Vulcanic breccia | |||
| tuff | ||||
| tuffite | ||||
| BIOCHEMICAL Form from the remaining particles of biological organisms. | limestone | |||
| chalk | ||||
| dolomite | ||||
| flint | ||||
| tufa | ||||
| CHEMICAL | halite | |||
| sylvanite | ||||
| gypsum | ||||
| anhydrite | ||||
| METHAMORPHIC ROCK | Form through metamorphosis from any other type of rock. | Less resistant to weathering and erosion. Have the same chemical characteristics as the rock type they formed from. | Formed through water secretion of mineral particles. | marble |
| quartzite | ||||
| serpentinite | ||||
| amphibolite | ||||
| eclogite | ||||
| hornstein | ||||
| skarn | ||||
| mylonite | ||||
| Tectonic breccia | ||||
| phyllite | ||||
| mica | ||||
| gneiss |
Granodiorite is an igneous intrusive rock. It is an acidic rock from which acidic ground forms during the process of weathering.
On Pohorje the rock was initially named ‘pohorski granodiorit’, later tonalit or flint diorite. Petrological analyses have shown that granodiorite prevails in the area. On the southern part we can find it close to Oplotnica pri Cezaku in the quarry Cezak I, on the northern part it is found in Josipdol. The rock is hard and very durable against mechanical strain.(Žlender & Dolinar, 2008, str. 40)
Limestone is a common sedimentary rock that forms through the settlement and build-up of dead biological matter in the sea. In Slovenia limestone presents 10-15% of all sedimentary rock and covers more than 40% of the country’s ground.
It is composed of micro crystals of calcite, which contains various other rocks, so it is not always a white colour. Calcite is made of shell fragments and skeletons of invertebrates, so it is common to find fossils in.
Limestone is found in areas that we call karst. It is a geological term that formed out of the geographic term Karst (a Slovenian region). For Karst, various caves and lakes, sinkholes and karst depressions are common. Dripstones are also a characteristic, they are formed through the precipitation of dripping water. In Slovenia the Julius Alpes are made mostly out of limestone.
One of the most interesting sites to find limestone that is used for its quality for building and artwork is found in Karst. Historical records show that it is there that people have harvested the rock for over two thousand years. In notranjsko-gorenjska and Bela Krajina we can also find grey and colourful carbonate rocks. In Tolmin we can find colourful limestone as well as in Štajerska and Posavska.
Limestone is used in agriculture (for liming soil and thus raising its pH value), calcium oxide is used in building (mortar, whitening) and in the chemical industry (it neutralizes acidic solutions).
Serpentinite is a massive metamorphic rock. It is formed at a low level of metamorphosis of ultrabasic rock with the presence of water. It has a green to black colour with a distinct surface that looks like an uneven net. Weathering of this rock creates a basic ground. It is found on the fringes of Pohorje, Kobansko and Kozjak.
Through the observation of rocks, we can see how the structure and composition of the Earth has changed through the geological eras.
What are the eras in the geological history of the Earth?(→ link: na spodnjo shemo in spletne povezave)
The Earth is approximately 4,5 billion years old. Since the beginning it has gone through different geological ages or eras during which it has developed into the planet that we live on now.
Features of different ground types… (→ link: na spodnje besedilo)
Different rock types mean different soil compositions. The composition of the soil then influences what kind of plants can grow and live in that kind of environment.
As do all living beings, plants also need nourishment to grow and thrive. Plants are autotrophic organisms: they can produce their own oxygen, carbon and hydrogen during the process of photosynthesis. These macro nutrients that they produce make up anywhere from 90% to 99% of the plant’s body, the other parts of the plant are made of mineral components that the plant gets from its environment
Plants get their mineral nutrient from the soil. The ground presents a natural formation on the Earth’s crust, made up of three phases:
Plants need nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, sulphur and potassium. These nutrients are called macro nutrients. Because these are not in abundance, we need to add them through fertilization of the soil. Along with macro nutrients plants need micro nutrients to thrive; these are those nutrients that plants need in smaller quantities (zinc, manganese, boron, iron, molybdenum). Plants can be given these nutrients in form of foliar fertilizer (leaves).
The fertility of the soil depends on the content of macro and micro nutrients, the conditions and other factors. The most important being the pH of the soil, the content of organic matter and the texture and structure of the soil.
Knowing the pH of a solution helps us know where it stands on the pH scale, if it is acidic, basic or neutral.
The more acidic the solution, the lower the pH value.
The more basic the solution, the higher the pH value.
| Type of ground | pH-level |
| Strongly acidic | < 4.5 |
| Acidic | 4.5–5.5 |
| weakly acidic | 5.6–6.7 |
| Neutral | 6.8–7.2 |
| Basic (alkaline) | > 7.2 |
Soil reaction is an important factor for plant growth, as the pH level of the soil affects the accessibility of nutrients to the plant and the microorganisms in the soil.
Most of cultivated plants thrive when the pH is between 6 and 7 as the soil has many nutrients in the appropriate (ionic) form that make it possible for the plant to grow. Most important soil organisms thrive when the pH level is near neutral.
The optimal soil reaction is not the same for all types of soil. In the case where the soil is rich with organic matter (>20%) most plants will also thrive if the pH value is not optimal, eg. pH=5.0-5.5. In soil with a lighter texture, the pH value will also be generally lower. Acidic soil (pH<4.0) is not optimal for cultivating plants as it also does not suit earthworms and most bacteria. In acidic soil the bacteria are substituted by fungi.
Among plants there are examples that thrive better in acidic or basic soil. Plants that grow better in acidic soil are called acidophiles (blueberry, lingonberry, rhododendron, some grasses). Those that thrive in basic soil are called basophils.
Soil reaction is the effect of several factors and processes that take place in the soil. The most important factors that affect the pH are the content of basic cations in the parent material and the process of pedogenesis.
In pedological laboratories they define two types of soil acidity:
Organic matter in the soil is composed of plant and animal remains in different stages of decomposition. This eventually turns into humus. Humus is the decomposed long-lasting part of organic matter that microorganisms have decomposed.
The soil is more fertile if it contains more humus. It presents a supply of minerals and a food source for microorganisms, gives the soil better airflow and keeps moisture and nourishments in.
The mineral part of the soil is formed from mineral particles that come into the soil during the weathering of the parent material.
The ratio between them is called the soil texture. The share of individual fractions is determined in a laboratory with a mechanical soil analysis. With the help of the soil texture triangle we determine the textural class the soil belongs in.
Texture is an important physical soil characteristic because it determines the flow of water in the ground, the capability of the soil to retain water, air and the ability to cultivate the soil.
For the growth of most plants a moderately fine textured soil is the best. This kind is the easiest to cultivate and it retains water and mineral matter.
With a little practice we can determine the texture of the soil ourselves with the help of the soil texture test. We take a small sample of the soil and add a small amount of water. We then knead it between our thumb and index finger to form a roll. If it is too dry, we add a little water and repeat. If it is too moist, we add soil.
This way we can determine the plasticity, size and the number of individual particles in the sample. We can also determine the connection between these particles, the adhesiveness.
Mineral soil particles, like sand, loam and clay do not exist in soil as individual particles (except for extremely sandy soil). All these particles are connected in the soil in units and aggregates.
The division and connections of these aggregates in the soil is described by soil structure. Soil structure describes the arrangement of the solid structures of the soil and the pore parts between them into structural aggregates.
The structure importantly impacts the fertility of the soil as it determines the factors such as: how porous is the soil, the ratio between macro- and micro-pores in the soil, the accessibility of plant nutrients and the development and growth of roots.
We divide soil into:
| Structure of soil | Description | |||
| GRANULAR |
-
Weak particles, - no aggregates - Sandy soil |
|
||
| BLOCKY |
-
Massive, - formed particles, - clay |
|
||
| Spherical aggregates /td> | crumbs |
- size up to 5 mm
- porous - typical of ground with large quantities of biological matter |
|
|
| cloddy |
- size 1–10 mm, - porous - A horizon and Bv horizon |
|||
| lumps |
- size 2–30 mm - flat edges and not porous - A horizon and Bv horizon |
|||
| polyhedrons | polyhedrons |
hahaving flat or slightly rounded surfaces that are casts of the faces of the surrounding aggregates. |
|
|
| Prismatic td> | prismatic |
- size 10–50 mm - vertical - rare in Slovenia |
|
|
| column shaped |
- size 150 mm - round on top - typical of salty soil |
|||
| Leaf shaped | leaf shaped |
- flat - horizontal - not porous - common in hydromorphic soil |
|
|
Through the interactions of these four soil processes, the soil constituents are reorganized into visibly, chemically, and/or physically distinct layers, referred to as horizons. There are five soil horizons: O, A, E, B, and C. (R is used to denote bedrock.)
Vir: (http://www.kis.si/f/pics/Galerija/2013_07-recharge.green.Profil2.webL_s2.jpg)
Slika: Pedološki profil
A horizon is a layer of ground horizontal with the area around it and formed in the processes of pedogenesis. It is different than the next horizon physically, chemically and biologically.
Horizons have their own names and signs. The main horizons are divided into groups.
The layers in the ground profile can be described by sub-horizons. These are written by adding an index to the main horizon’s name.
The only way to accurately know the characteristics of the soil is to analyse it in a laboratory.
The basics can be learned from the results of the standard chemical pedological analyses that determine soil reaction, potassium, phosphorus and how much nitrogen and organic matter is in the soil.
The best time for taking samples is in the fall or spring. We use specific equipment to take the sample, like pedologic probes.
The samples are taken according to the wear of the ground, in different depths and even layers. The samples are taken at a shallower depth in a meadow (0-6 and 6-12cm), on a field to the depth of the equipment (0-25cm) and in vineyards and orchards in layers (0–20 cm, 20–40 cm in 0–30 cm).
The sample has to be representative and is therefore taken in different places evenly throughout.
The soil is then stirred in a bucket to get a good homogenous sample.
How much we test depends on the analyses that we want to do. The sample is put into a bag and marked accordingly with the right information (mark of the plot, name of owner, place, date, depth).
We often see two different phrases used: soil and ground. There is a difference between these two words in their meaning.
DIFFERENT EXPRESSIONS
How we define the words soil and ground:
The word ‘soil’ (prst) in Slovene denotes a light, crumbly fine earth that usually has a good amount of humus and is fertile. ‘Ground’ denotes all the layers of the surface to the parent material, regardless of the stage of genesis of the ground.
‘Earth’ is the phrase with the widest usage. Besides it being the name of our planet (when the initial in is uppercase) the word denotes mineral-organic matter in which plants grow.
In the rock garden there are different ground types that give the according environment to plants that need specific nutrients to thrive and grow.
In the process of weathering, the rocks disintegrate into minerals that compose the different grounds with distinct features. For example, limestone makes ground with a basic reaction as the minerals in limestone contain calcium.
+ Some of the plant species, that grow on limestone in the rock garden of the Botanical garden of UM (link):
|
SLOVENE NAME |
GENUS |
SPECIES |
KRATEK OPIS |
SLIKA |
|
Rhododendron hirsutum |
Rhododendron |
| 
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Black hellebore |
Helleborus |
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Winter heath |
Erica |
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Winter savory |
Satureja |
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Gentiana lutea |
Gentiana |
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Mountain pine |
Pinus |
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New Zealand burr |
Acaena |
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Mountain gold |
Alyssum |
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Common Peony |
Paeonia |
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Rowan |
Sorbus |
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Alpine clematis |
Clematis |
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Greater pasque flower |
Pulsatilla |
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Rhododendron is a genus of shrubs. In Europe we know six species. It is an evergreen shrub. It can have leathery leaves and red, violet, yellow or white flowers. In the Alps we can find Rhododendron hirsutum and R. ferrugineum. It is a popular decorative plant. (Duden, 2002)
ETIMOLOGY: the name is taken from Greek rhodon ‘rose’ and diedon ‘tree’
Helleborus is a genus of herbaceous evergreen perennial flowering plants. We know of 25 species. It is found in Europe and central Asia. It is a poisonous plant with petal like sepals on its flowers. In Slovenia the most known is H. niger. We can find it in the Alps, Carpathian Mountains and Apennine mountains. It has white and later scarlet coloured petals. It is also used as a garden plant. (Duden, 2002)
People have used it in ancient times as a medicinal plant (to induce vomiting, menstruation, as a laxative, against epilepsy and mania). In the Middle Ages hellebore was a symbol of a long life and a protection against evil spirits.
ETIMOLOGY: The scientific name Helleborus derives from the ancient greek word ἑλλέβορος (helléboros), the name for H. orientalis, constructed from ἑλεῖν (heleîn), meaning "to injure", and βορά (borá), meaning "food".
FOLK LITERATURE: the tale of the black hellebore with the same title, was published in 1907 in ‘Ljubljanski Zvonček’. Among others it depicts children that were thrilled to see the first black hellebore in spring. Link:Digitalna knjižnica Slovenije.
Erica (heath) is a genus of flowering plants in which there are app. 500 species. They are common in South America and some species also can be found in Africa, the Mediterranean and all the way from the Alps to Great Britain. Heath is an evergreen, low, thickly branched bush with needle like leaves. It has axillary, umbel and sometimes spiked flowers.
Spring heath- E carnea is a small bush that is common to the Alps and east and Mediterranean mountains. It can grow up to 15-30cm. The leaves are green and needle like. It flowers from December to April. (Duden, 2002)
INTERESTING FACT: in the Slovenian dictionary the word heath (resa) has several meanings: 1. decorative strand; 2. short, sharp extension of the chaff in the corn ear; 3. hard, long fur
Saturea is a genus of aromatic plants, related to rosemary and thyme.
Summer savoury (S. hortensis) is an annual plant, it has white to violet flowers and spear like leaves. It comes from south Europe and the Middle East. It is used as a kitchen spice. (Duden, 2002)
Winter savoury (S. montana) is an evergreen perennial that grows to 40cm. It has violet or pink flowers. It comes from the Mediterranean. (Duden, 2002)
INTERESTING FACT: The plant is thought to be an aphrodisiac. Because of this, it was forbidden as a food in monasteries, it was, however, allowed be grown and sold.
SIMBOLISM: It is a symbol of happiness.
+ In Europe it also has a reputation of being an aphrodisiac. It is thought to work by boosting the testosterone and to prevent early ejaculation in men. In women, it boosts the blood flow to the uterus.
Gentian is a genus of flowering plants with over 450 species. It grows mainly in the north hemisphere and in the Andes. They are annual or perennial plants with trumpet shaped flowers that are usually blue.
Brown gentian (G. pannonica) has 15-60cm tall, hollow stem and big bell like blue or red flowers.
Spring gentian (G. verna) has flowers with a deeply five-lobed corolla.
Yellow gentian (G. lutea) The flowers are yellow, with the corolla separated nearly to the base into 5–7 narrow petals.
Marsh gentian (G. pneumonathe) is 15-50cm in height. It has striped leaves and bell-shaped blue flowers.
Bladder gentian (G. utriculosa) is 25cm in height. It has blue flowers that can be green on the outside. (Duden, 2002)
INTERESTING FACT: In Slovene it can have two other meanings: 1. sharp, hissing sound; 2. small sand that was washed ashore or brought with wind
Mountain pine (pinus mungo)is a species of conifer native to high elevation habitats from southwestern to central Europe. It has a black coloured bark and thick pairs of needles. The pines are arranged horizontally or obliquely and can be shimmery when ripe.
1. Pinus mugo ssp. pumilio: is 1,5 m tall, with thick, upwards facing branches and round pines
2. Pinus mugo subsp. mugo — in the east and south of the range (southern & eastern Alps, Balkan Peninsula), a low, shrubby, often multi-stemmed plant to 3–6 m (10–20 ft) tall with symmetrical cones.
3. Pinus mugo subsp. uncinata — in the west and north of the range (from the Pyrenees northeast to Poland), a larger, usually single-stemmed tree to 20 m (66 ft) tall with asymmetrical cones (the scales are much thicker on one side of the cone than the other).
4. Pinus mugo subsp. rotundata — hybrid subspecies, of the two subspecies above that intergrade extensively in the western Alps and northern Carpathians. (Duden, 2002)
Acaena is a genus of evergreen, creeping herbaceous perennial plants and subshrubs. It grows on the south hemisphere. A. microphylla has small, sometimes bronze coloured leaves and in the summer grows bright red flower heads. Other species: A. buchananii, A. caesiiglauca (glauca), A. novae-zelandiae, A. »Purple Carpet«. (Beckett, 1995)
Allysum is a genus of flowering plants with around 100 species in the family Brassicaceae that is common in central Europe and from the Mediterranean to central Asia. It has oblong-oval leaves and its flowers are usually small and grouped into clusters. The flowers are yellow. It is often used as a rockery (rock garden) flower. (Duden, 2002)
ETIMOLOGY: The Latin lame alyssum comes from the word lyssa, which means ‘dog rabies’, the prefix a- means ‘against rabies’
Paeonia (Peony) is a flowering plant. It has over 30 species in Europe, Asia and North America. These are perennial plants with green or lignified stems. It has yellow, white, pink or red flowers. They are amongst the more popular decorative plants.
Two examples of the species (Duden, 2002):
ETIMOLOGY:
SYMBOLISM: It symbolizes worry, anger, hurt, shame and shyness.
Sorbus (rowan)is a genus of about 100 species of trees and shrubs from the rose family. It grows in the North Temperate Zone. Its flowers are small and white in colour. The fruit is small and apple like. (Duden, 2002)
INTERESTING FACT: among some people that live where rowan grows, it is common to believe that it is a sacred tree and it is forbidden to burn it.
Clematis (leather flower) is a genus of about 300 species within the buttercup family. It is found all over the world. They are evergreen or deciduous climbing vines. The leaves are simple, triple or feathery. Its flowers are green or violet. (Duden, 2002)
The name klematis comes from the Greek word klema and means 'like a vine'.
Pulsatilla (pasqueflower) is a genus of about 30 species of herbaceous perennials from the buttercup family. P. vulgaris is poisonous and, in some areas, protected. The flowers are light violet and bell shaped.
In Slovenia we can find P. grandis = P. vulgaris spp. grandis, which is protected. We can find it on rocky grasslands under Boč and in Ponikva. Its flower is blue-violet on the inside and around 5cm wide. (Duden, 2002)
INTERESTING FACT: The plants contain a substance that can ease pain, work as an antiseptic and heal skin diseases. It is poisonous in larger quantities.
IN ART: Srečko Kosovel liked to mention the plant, e.g. Velikonočnice (Očetu in materi) in Velikonočnice (odgovor).
Rhododendron hirsutum is one of the species of rhododendron, native to central Europe.
DESCRIPTION: It is an evergreen shrub that can grow up to 1m in height. It has elliptically elongated leaves that are 2-3 cm long. The leaves are green, and the flowers are pink inside. (Wraber, 2006).
NATURAL SITE: It grows on fresh carbohydrate rich ground, rocks, and in bright forests.
RANGE: It can be found in the Alpes, Trnovski gozd, Idrijsko in Cerkljansko hribovje, Zasavje, Iški vintgar, Snežnik, Boč, Donačka gora, Gorjanci, …
FLOWERING SEASON: It flowers from June to August. It is a woody plant (phanerophyte).
NUMBER OF SPECIES IN SLOVENIA: In Slovenia there are 3 species.
INTERESTING FACT: The plant is poisonous, it contains diterpen andromedotoksin.
Helleborus niger (commonly named Christmas rose) is a calciphile from the buttercup family.
DESCRIPTION: The colour of the flowers changes from snow white to red or violet-green. The colour is brighter if the plant grows on sunny sites.
NATURAL SITE: It grows in bright forests and pastures on carbonate grounding.
RANGE: In the wild, H. niger niger is generally found in mountainous areas in Switzerland, southern Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Croatia and northern Italy.
STATUS: It is a protected species O° (you can still harvest the parts that grow above ground, except the fruits and seeds).
FLOWERING SEASON: It flowers from January to May. It is a hemicryptophyte a perennial plant having its overwintering buds located at the soil surface.
NUMBER OF SPECIES IN SLOVENIA: In Slovenia we know of 5 species.
INTERESTING FACT: The name comes from the Greek words elein- to hurt and bora- food (as it is poisonous) The epithet niger means black, as it has a back coloured root. The toxins protoanemonin and ranunculin can be found in the plant.
Erica carnea (Winter heath) is a genus of pants from the family Ericaceae. Europe, Slovenia, France, Italy, central Europe, the Balkans. (Krajnčič, 2005).
DESCRIPTION: It is an evergreen shrub that grows up to 25cm in height. It can cover large areas as it is thickly branched. Young branches are very flexible and grow wooden and dark brown in old age. It grows four short and needled leaves. In the winter they change from dark green to a brown-green colour. The flowers are light to dark pink and are produced in racemes. (Drevesa in grmi, 2005).
NATURAL SITE: It grows on carbohydrate rich ground, pine forests and their edges and rocky grasslands.
RANGE: It can be found in Slovenia from the lowlands up to the high mountain ranges.
FLOWERING SEASON: It flowers from February to July.
NUMBER OF SPECIES IN SLOVENIA: In Slovenia there is 1 species.
INTERESTING FACTS: The name comes from the Greek word ereike- to crush (the roots can crush stones if they grow between their cracks). The plant contains ursolic and gentisic acid, that prevents the forming of melanin in the skin. It is the first of its genus to flower. (Pintar & Seliškar, 2015).
The rock garden also features granodiorite, the rock that gives the ground an acidic quality. This kind of ground is commonly found in Scotland.
Granodiorite forms on parent material that does not contain calcium. This is true for most magmatic rocks.
This kind of ground is a good environment for acidophilic and calciphilic plants.
+ Some of the plant species, that grow on granodiorite in the rock garden of the Botanical garden of UM:
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SLOVENE NAME |
GENUS |
SPECIES |
KRATEK OPIS |
SLIKA |
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Jesenska vresa |
Calluna |
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Rjasti sleč |
Rhododendron |
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Volk |
Nardus |
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Trebušasta zvončica |
Campanula |
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Vrtnarska heba |
Hebe |
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Rušje/Planinski bor |
Pinus |
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Buchananov šaš |
Carex |
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Jerebika |
Sorbus |
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Planinski srobot |
Clematis |
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Calluna is a genus of plants from the family Ericaceae. It only has one species: Calluna vulgaris. It grows on marshy and sandy ground in Europe and on the coasts of North America. It is a 20-100cm tall small shrub that has around 3mm long, needle like leaves. The flowers are arranged on one side and are light violet to white. Bees like the flower.
Campanula (Bellflowers) is a genus of plants from the family Campanulaceae and has around 300 species. It is common in arctic, temperate and subtropical areas of the north hemisphere. The flowers are mostly perennials with bell shaped flowers that grow in panicles. (Duden, 2002).
In Slovenia there are 26 species.
Campanula cochleariifolia (earleaf bellflower) is around 15cm tall, light blue or white in colour. The flowers are arranged one to three in each stem.
Campanula zoysii (Zois’ bellflower) Is a blue flowering Alpine plant that belongs to the older endemites. It is found in the alpine part of the Julian alps, Kamnik-Savinja Alps, Karawanks and Trnovo forest. It is named after its finder, the botanic Karel Zois. (Duden, 2002)
Hebe is a genus of plants native to Australia and New Zealand. The shrubs or trees are evergreen with leathery leaves and white or pink flowers. Many species are cultivated for ornamental shrubs.
INTERESTING FACT: Hebe is the name of the Greek goddess of youth, the daughter of Zeus and Hera.
Carex (sedges) is a genus of plant from the family Cyperaceae. It has around 1100 species that grow all over the world. In Slovenia there are 84 species that are hard to distinguish amongst each other. The most common are perennial flowers with three-rimmed stems. The flowers are monoecious (each flower is either male of female). They are common on hills, marshes and acidic grasslands. (Duden, 2002)
Two examples of the species: (Duden, 2002):
C. arenaria, has tough and rough leaves. It grows via long stolons under the soil surface. It is not found in Slovenia.
C. sylvatica je 30–60 cm in height. The female spikes are each 2.0–6.5 cm long, and are held dangling on long, rough peduncles, arising from within a long leaf-sheath. The male spike is much thinner and is 1–4 cm long.It is found in deciduous forests.
Clematis (leather flower) is a genus of about 300 species within the buttercup family. It is found all over the world. They are evergreen or deciduous climbing vines. The leaves are simple, triple or feathery. Its flowers are green or violet. (Duden, 2002)
The name clematis comes from the Greek word klema and means 'like a vine'.
Calluna vulgaris grows on marshy and sandy ground in Europe and on the coasts of North America. It is a 20-100cm tall small shrub that has around 3mm long, needle like leaves. The flowers are arranged on one side and are light violet to white. Bees like the flower.
DESCRIPTION: It is an evergreen low-growing perennial shrub. It is rarely seen as an individual shrub as it frequently covers large areas. The sprouts branch out vastly and can be upwards facing or horizontal. The plant has small scaly leaves that lie on the branch like roof tiles. The flowers can be pink and rarely white. The fruit is like a small capsule. (Drevesa in grmi, 2005).
NATURAL SITE: It grows on acidic ground, in forests, moors, marshes and grasslands.
RANGE: It is common in Slovenia in the lowlands up to the high mountain ranges.
FLOWERING SEASON: It flowers from August to Spring.
LIFE FORM, PLANT HEIGHT: It is a perennial woody plant and a nanophanerophyte. 20-50cm.
NUMBER OF SPECIES FOUND IN SLOVENIA: There is 1 species in Slovenia.
INTERESTING FACT: Calluna was separated from the closely related genus Erica by Richard Anthony Salisbury, who devised the generic name Calluna probably from the Greek Kallyno (καλλύνω), "beautify, sweep clean", in reference to its traditional use in besoms. The specific epithet vulgaris is Latin for 'common'. Calluna is differentiated from Erica by its corolla and calyx each being in four parts instead of five.
It contains tannins, the glycoside arbutin and fumaric acid. (Pintar & Seliškar, 2015)
It is common in Central Europe because people used to thin forests for sheep pastures and it could grow freely. It can grow in very harsh environments but needs lots of sunlight. Its needles fall on the ground and make it acidic. It attracts bees, as it has a lot of nectar. (Stichmann-Marny, 2009)
Rhododendron ferrugineum (Alpen rose) is a genus of shrubs. In Europe we know six species. It is an evergreen shrub. It can have leathery leaves and red, violet, yellow or white flowers. In the Alps we can find Rhododendron hirsutum and R. ferrugineum. It is a popular decorative plant.
DESCRIPTION: It can grow 30-150cm tall. The leaves are evergreen, hard and oval. The surface of the leaf is shiny on the outside and a dark green colour. On the inside it has yellow scales that are later brown in colour. The leaves edges face downwards. Its flowers are shades of dark red and can pollinate themselves or are pollinated by bumblebees.
NATURAL SITE: It grows in subalpine shrubbery, pine forests; it thrives only in damp climate on non-limestone ground.
RANGE: It is found in the Alps, the Jura Mountains and the Pyrenees. In Slovenia it grows in the Julian Alps, the Karawanks and on Pohorje. (Seidel, 2005)
FLOWERING SEASON: It flowers from May to August.
INTERESTING FACT: The plants can live through winter only if covered by a thick layer of snow. Every part of the plant is poisonous, the leaves are used in medicine to induce sweating, urinating, against rheumatic pain and kidney stones. It is not recommended for domestic use. (Golner, str. 130)
Nardus stricta (mattgrass) is an acidophilic plant from the family Poaceae- grasses. It grows in Europe, Slovenia, Turkey, Caucasus, Morocco, east Siberia, North America, Greenland, Tasmania and New Zealand.
DESCRIPTION: It is a perennial plant that can grow up to 10-30cm. The leaves are grey-green in colour and have rigid bristles, that is where the name of the species comes from (strictus = rigid). The plant grows from last years dried leaves and flowers from May to June.
NATURAL SITE: It grows on acidic ground, on grasslands and pastures.
INTERESTING FACTS: A thick layer of snow, grazing or walking on it does not harm the plant, but benefits it, as it helps to destroy any plants that are its competition. It does not like fertilized or limed ground. Animals do not eat it, cows tend to pull it out and leave it on the ground (Stichmann-Marny, 2009).
In addition to granodiorite and limestone, the rock garden also features the interesting rock serpentinite.
+ It does not contain calcium and is an igneous rock.
+ Some of the plant species, that grow on serpentinite in the rock garden of the Botanical garden of UM:
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SLOVENE NAME |
GENUS |
SPECIES |
KRATEK OPIS |
SLIKA |
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Serpentinski netresk |
Sempervivum |
Endemite Named after Josephu Claudiusu Pittoniju. |
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Evropska forsitija |
Forsythia |
Rare shrub. Grows only on serpentinite. |
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Kijastolistni sršaj |
Asplenium |
Has a diagonal root and soft leaves that do not thrive in the winter. |
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Nepravi sršaj |
Asplenium |
Serpentinofite. |
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Materina dušica |
Thymus |
Aromatic. |
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Asplenium (spleenworts) is a genus that is widespread all over the world. It has around 700 species, along with some epiphytes. We categorize it into the family of ferns. It has simple, feathery or feathery-parted veined leaves. Many species are cultivated as ornamental plants. In Slovenia there are 11 species, among them:
Serpentinite(link na foto) got its name after the Latin word ‘serpentinus’ meaning snake. It is believed to be a rock that shields from snake bites and all types of poisoning.
Granodiorite and serpentinite are separate in the rock garden, because of the need to show the specific adaptations that plants that grow on serpentinite rock have.
Serpentinite plants are often of small size and with small, thick leaves. They may have a reddish colour to them. Some of the typical plants are serpentinite houseleek, various spleenworts and the European forsythia.
+ What kinds of adaptations have serpentinite plants developed?link: na spodnje besedilo)
Many people have ornamental forsythias at home that have come from its wild cousins, like the one that is here in the rock garden. These wild plants grow in mountain areas on the border between Montenegro and Macedonia.
Among other interesting rock types, the rock garden has a centre part that mimics a specific habitat – the Karst field.
+ Some of the plant species, that grow in the Karst field in the rock garden of the Botanical garden of UM: (link na preglednico)
| SLOVENIAN NAME | GENUS | SPECIES | KRATEK OPIS | SLIKA |
| Francoski (galski) šipek | Rosa | R. gallica |
It is an important origin species of today’s rose. Used for perfumes, rose vinegar and decoration in old Rome. |
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| Vodna perunika | Iris | I. pseudoacorus |
Named after the Greek goddess of the rainbow: Iris. Indicator for wet ground. |
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| Nemška perunika | Iris | I. germanica |
Perennial. Helps with the common cold and liver and digestive problems. |
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| Jesenski podlesek | Colchicum | C. autumnale | Contains poisonous kohlicin. |
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| Navadni kosmatinec | Pulsatilla | P. nigricans | Grows on dry grasslands. |
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Colchicum (crocus) is a genus of plants from the Colchicaceae family of about 60 species. The species are common from Europe to central Asia and North America. They are poisonous plants. They have individual, violet, red or white flowers on a very short stem. When the flower withers, leaves can be seen growing. Many species are cultivated for ornamental purposes.
Colchium autumale (autumn crocus) grows on damp meadows in south, central and west Europe. It is a perennial plant. It has a brown scaly tuber; its leaves are wide and pointy. The flowers are similar to those of saffron and are light violet in colour. It flowers in autumn. (Duden, 2002).
The plant is very toxic as it contains the poisonous alkaloid colchicine.
Rosa gallica (the Gallic rose) is a flowering plant in the rose family.
DESCRIPTION: It is an important origin species of today’s rose (Duden, 2002). It grows in small groups. The branches have four types of needles: strong, bended back; straight, pointed and gland-like. It has feathery-divided leaves that are grey-green and hairy on the underside. The flowers can grow 5-7cm, are individual and emit a strong odour; they are red or dark violet in colour.
NATURAL SITE: It grows on the forest edges, pastures, and moderately dry ground near paths.
IN SLOVENIA: In Slovenia it grows from the lowlands up to the lower mountain ranges (rarely in the Alps).
FLOWERING SEASON: It flowers from June to July.
LIFE FORM, PLANT HEIGHT: It is a woody plant. Phanerophyte. 20-100cm.
IN SLOVENIA: In Slovenia we can find 22 species.
INTERESTING FACT: Linne described the species based on the specimen he found in France and named it after the land Gaul. In ancient Rome the plant was used to make perfume, rose vinegar and for ornamental purposes. Many ornamental roses come from the French plant. (Pintar & Seliškar, 2015).
Iris pseudoacorus (Yellow iris) is a species of flowering plant in the family Iridaceae. It is found in Europe, Slovenia, W Asia, N Africa. Its roots are used to fight the common cold and liver or digestive problems.
DESCRIPTION: It grows 50-120cm. Its flowers are made of three functional units. The flower is shiny yellow in colour; at the bottom we can see brown veins. The leaves are 1m long and 1-3cm thick. The stem is round or elliptical and has 1 to 5 flowers. (Seidel, 2005)
NATURAL SITE: It grows near ponds and slow flowing waters and swamps.
RANGE: It can be found in Slovenia from the lowlands up to the lower mountain ranges.
FLOWERING SEASON: It flowers from May to June.
LIFE FORM, PLANT HEIGHT: It is a perennial flower. Geophyte. 50-100cm.
IN SLOVENIA: In Slovenia we can find 7 species. (Pintar & Seliškar, 2015).
INTERESTING FACTS:
The name comes from the Greek goddess of the rainbow. The epithet pseudo- is given because its leaves look like acorus leaves.
The nectar can only be reached by butterflies, bumblebees and other insects with a long proboscis.
The plant is an indicator for wet ground. The seeds are distributed by floating on water. The flowers and roots contain toxins dangerous to livestock. (Pintar & Seliškar, 2015).
Iris germanica (Bearded iris) is a bearded rhizomatous species of iris from the family Iridacea. It is found in the east Mediterranean. (Krajnčič, 2005)
DESCRIPTION: It can grow 25-80 cm in height.
The leaves are 20-70cm long and wide; tipped at the end. Its flowers are individual or grouped in clusters and a dark violet colour with dark veins and yellow hairs. The inside of the flower is light blue.
FLOWERING SEASON: It flowers from May to July.
NATURAL SITE: It grows on rocks and walls. (Godet, 1999)
Colchium autunale (autumn crocus) grows on damp meadows in south, central and west Europe. (Krajnčič, 2005). It is a perennial plant. It has a brown scaly tuber; its leaves are wide and pointy. The flowers are similar to those of saffron and are light violet in colour. It flowers in autumn.
The plant is very toxic as it contains the poisonous alkaloid colchicine.
DESCRIPTION: From the tuber, which is meaty and surrounded by leaves, it grows many light pink or violet flowers in autumn. The ovule is hidden in the tuber until spring. The leaves are 40cm long and the head grows to 6cm. The seeds are dark-brown and have a meaty white appendix that attracts ants, which in turn disperse the seeds.
NATURAL SITE: It grows on fresh, moist, nutrient rich ground; on marshes and bright forests.
RANGE: It is found in Slovenia from the lowlands up to the mountain ranges.
FLOWERING SEASON: It flowers in September (rarely in spring).
LIFE FORM, PLANT HEIGHT: The plant is a perennial. Geophyte. 5-30cm.
IN SLOVENIA: In Slovenia we can find 2 species.
INTERESTING FACTS: The autumn crocus was known in Ancient Greece as ‘kohlnikon’ after the land Kolhide. Today’s Latin name was likely written by Tournefort.
The plant is very toxic because of its alkaloids, mostly colchicine. Fifty grams of leaves is already a deadly amount.
The healing parts of the plant are its tubers and fruit. It is used for pharmaceutical purposes. Colchicine is used against gout, rheumatoid pains and asthma.
The Karst field is a large flat plain found in karstic geological regions. It forms on limestone ground. The Alps, for example, are made from limestone, and make up more than a third of Slovenia’s surface (mostly the centre, south and west parts).
Boč and Donačka gora are also mostly limestone, as this is the most eastern part of the Karawanks.
Therefore, the pasqueflower of the buttercup family, which is typical to Boč, is on the limestone part of the rock garden. The flower is a very popular ornamental plant that can be red or white in colour. Because there is plenty of limestone in Slovenia there are many multi-coloured meadows where peonies and irises also grow (this is rare for GB).
Slovenia is a very biodiverse country.
On Pohorje we can find the Alpen rose (rhododendron ferrugineum), there the biodiversity is smaller, but it has more peculiarities. For Pohorje mattgrasses are common. This plant is the true natural architect of Pohorje as it stays on the pastures because animals do not like to eat it.
Erica or heath is also a typical acidophilic plant species that grows in Pohorje. Heath grows continuously throughout its area of growth (also in England and Scotland). It can be very picturesque.
Heath is also a popular ornamental plant, in the rock garden we can find it near many other low-growing shrubs. With these kinds of plants, we can shape gardens, graves and public areas that are hard to maintain.
The mountain pine can be seen on all parts of the rock garden, which is fitting, as it can be found in all kinds of environments in nature.
A collection of several conifers is called a pinetum. One can be found right here in the botanical garden of the University of Maribor, just a little further from the rock garden.
